UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
FOREIGN LANGUAGE DEPARTMENT
FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY
FOOD AND NUTRITION 1
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FOOD AND NUTRITION
READING COMPREHENSION
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All living organisms require food for survival, growth, and reproduction.
Most broadly, the term food can be taken to include any kind of nutrient
needed by animals, plants, and simpler forms of life, on down to
bacteria. This would include, for example, the inorganic substances that
plants draw from air and water. The processes that circulate these basic
nutrients in the environment are called nutrient cycles, and the processes
by which organisms make use of nutrients are collectively known as
metabolism.
In terms of the energy needs of humans and other animals, food consists
of carbohydrate, fat, and protein, along with vitamins and minerals.
Humans may consume a wide range of different food substances, as
long as they meet nutrition requirements. Otherwise nutritionaldeficiency
diseases will develop.
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Nutrition is the science that interprets the relationship of food to the
functioning of the living organism. It is concerned with the intake of
food, digestive processes, the liberation of energy, and the elimination
of wastes, as well as with all the syntheses that are essential for
maintenance, growth, and reproduction. These fundamental activities are
characteristic of all living organisms – from the simplest to the most
complex plants and animals. Nutrients are substances, either naturally
occurring or synthesized, that are necessary for maintenance of the
normal function of organisms. These include carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, vitamins and minerals, water, and some unknown substances.
The nutritionist, a scientist working in the field of nutrition, differs from
the dietitian, who translates the science of nutrition into the skill of
furnishing optimal nourishment to people. Dietetics is a profession
concerned with the science and art of human nutrition care, an essential
component of the health sciences. The treatment of disease by
modification of the diet lies within the province of the physician and the
dietitian.
The foods consumed by humans must contain, in adequate amounts,
about 45 to 50 highly important substances. Water and oxygen are
equally essential. Starting only with these essential nutrients obtained
from food, the body makes literally thousands of substances necessary
for life and physical fitness. Most of these substances are far more
complicated in structure than the original nutrients.
Energy metabolism and requirements are customarily expressed in terms
of the calorie, a heat unit. Adoption of the calorie by nutritionists
followed quite naturally from the original methods of measuring energy
metabolism. The magnitude of human energy metabolism, however,
made it awkward to record the calorie measured, so the convention of
the large calorie, or kilocalorie (kcal), was accepted. Atwater factors,
also called physiologic fuel factors, are based on the corrections for
losses of unabsorbed nutrients in the feces and for the calorie equivalent
of the nitrogenous products in the urine. These factors are as follows: 1g
of pure protein will yield 4 calories, 1g of pure fat will yield 9 calories,
and 1 g of pure carbohydrate will yield 4 calories.
Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.
1) What is food?
2) What are nutrient cycles?
3) What is metabolism?
4) How different are the nutritionist and the dietitian?
5) What are physiologic fuel factors?
True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.
_____ The term food does not include the inorganic substances
that plants draw from air and water.
FOOD AND NUTRITION 3
_____ The intake of food, digestive processes, the liberation of
energy, and the elimination of wastes are the fundamental
activities of all living organisms.
_____ Unless food substances humans consume meet nutrition
requirements, nutritional-deficiency diseases will develop.
_____ Water and oxygen are equally essential.
_____ The treatment of disease by modification of the diet lies
within the province of the physician and the nutritionist.
VOCABULARY
Fill in these statements with the words in the box.
diet dietetics nutrients metabolism organisms
consume province nutrition synthesis nourishment
1) Improvements in ……………… have been mostly to do with
persuading people to eat less fatty food and more raw vegetables.
2) Exercise is supposed to speed up your ……………….
3) A young baby obtains all the ……………… it needs from its
mother's milk.
4) If you have a balanced ………………, you are getting all the
vitamins you need.
5) ……………… is the scientific study of diet and its effects on
health.
6) Humans may ……………… a wide range of different food
substances.
7) The treatment of disease by modification of the diet lies within the
……………… of the physician and the dietitian.
8) Plants draw minerals and other ……………… from the soil.
9) All living ……………… require food for survival, growth, and
reproduction.
10) Plants need sunlight for the ……………… of their food from
carbon dioxide and water.
WORD STUDY
A. UN-, IM-, IN-, DIS-, AND NONThe
prefixes un-, im-, in-, dis-, and non- can be added to the beginning
of some words. These prefixes mean “not.”
Look at this example:
un- + healthy = unhealthy
Smoking is not good for you. It’s unhealthy.
4 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
Here are other words with these negative prefixes.
un- unimportant, unpopular
im- impossible
in- incomplete, inexpensive
dis- discontinue
non- nonfat
Exercise: Choose the best word to complete each sentence.
1) A person who is unfriendly is probably ………, too.
A. unpopular B. unusual
C. uncomfortable D. unimportant
2) The service at this restaurant is very slow. It’s ……… to have a
quick lunch here!
A. impossible B. important C. immoral D. immediate
3) The airline will ……… service to that city. It is not a popular place
to go.
A. discontinue B. disagree C. disable D. discover
4) ……… yogurt is better for you than ice cream.
A. Nonstop B. Nonfat C. Nonstandard D. Nonstick
5) Jaime’s homework is ……… because he felt sick last night.
A. inexpensive B. incomplete C. inflexible D. inevitable
B. MENT AND ER
Some nouns and verbs have the same form. We can add a special
ending, or suffix, to other verbs to make noun forms.
Here are some examples:
same form -ment -er
verb noun verb noun verb noun
order order govern government drive driver
drink drink agree agreement own owner
cost cost run runner
work worker
Exercise: Complete the sentences with verbs and nouns from the chart. (If you
need to, make the nouns plural. Also, make sure that each verb
agrees with its subject.)
1) Susan is the fastest ……………… . She can ……………… the
race in less than three minutes.
2) The bus ……………… will not ……………… an unsafe bus.
3) I think the two companies will ……………… to work together.
They will both sign the ……………….
4) – Did Saul ……………… a salad and some tea?
– Yes. Now he’s waiting for his ……………… .
5) Joseph bought a lot of food and ……………… for the get-together.
He hopes that everyone will eat and ……………… a lot.
6) Even though they……………… hard, most of the ………………
FOOD AND NUTRITION 5
at fast-food restaurants do not make a lot of money.
7) – My aunt is the ……………… of that popular take-out restaurant
on Main Street.
– Does she ……………… the restaurant on Green Street, too?
C. TH AND GHT
Some nouns that end in th or ght are related to similar words that are
not nouns. Read the following pairs of sentences and see how the words
in bold print are related.
1) Some cities grow quickly. Their growth is fast.
2) The street is five kilometers long. The length is five kilometers.
3) The street is fifteen meters wide. Its width is fifteen meters.
4) The lake is thirty meters deep. Its depth is thirty meters.
5) Joanna is very strong. She has a lot of strength.
6) How high is that building? What is its height?
7) Anna weighs 50 kilos. Her weight is 50 kilos.
Exercise: Now choose the best word for each sentence. Use each word only
once.
depth height strength width
growth length weight
1) The flag is flying high above the ground. The …………………of
that flagpole is about 20 meters.
2) The …………………of the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco
is about 1,400 meters. It is a very long bridge.
3) What is the …………………of the Pacific Ocean at its deepest
point?
4) People who build houses must be very strong. They must have
great …………………in their arms.
5) Plants need a lot of water to grow. Without it, their ………………
is slow.
6) What is the …………………of your garage? Is it wide enough to
park two cars inside?
7) David is very thin now. He weighs only 49 kilos. He lost a lot of
………………….
STRUCTURE STUDY
THE PASSIVE
A sentence is often written in a passive form when the important idea is
not WHO does something, but WHAT IS DONE.
(a) They measured the extension in the steel bar.
(b) The extension in the steel bar was measured.
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If the doer of the action has some importance (though less than the
object), or is needed to complete the sense of the sentence, it is given,
e.g. ‘A knowledge of statistics is required by every type of scientists.’
Passives can be formed in the following ways:
A tense of be + past participle
active: He cooked the food.
passive: The food was cooked.
Modal + be / have been + past participle
active: He may cook the food.
passive: The food may be cooked.
to be / to have been + past participle
active: He is to cook the food.
passive: The food is to be cooked.
being / having been + past participle
active: Cooking / Having cooked …
passive: Being / Having been cooked …
Exercise: Rewrite the following sentences in the passive :
1) People apply mathematics in many different activities.
2) People use computers for many different purposes.
3) People use the decimal system even in countries with nondecimalized
systems of weights and measurements.
4) Water covers most of the Earth’s surface.
5) Somebody was cleaning the room when I arrived.
6) Huge ocean waves swept houses into the sea.
7) They have postponed the seminar.
8) A mystery is something that we can explain.
9) We are going to build a new zoo next year.
10) The vegetables didn’t taste very good. People had cooked them for
too long.
11) The situation is serious. We must do something before it’s too late.
12) When we got to the stadium, we found that they had cancelled the
game.
13) They are building a new ring road round the city.
14) I don’t like people telling me what to do.
15) We gave the police the information.
16) We will give you plenty of time to decide.
17) They must first clean sewage in treatment plants.
18) Has anybody told you about ecology?
19) In modern zoos, people can see animals in more natural habitats.
20) He said that he wanted somebody to wake him up at 6.30 next
morning.
ESSENRIAL NUTRIENTS 7
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ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS
READING COMPREHENSION
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Water
The human body contains 50 to 70% water, making it the most abundant
compound in the body. Because there is no storage of water within the
body water must be replaced continually. Water may be obtained from
beverages, foods, and from energy metabolism within the body. Water
functions in temperature regulation, as a solvent, in chemical reactions,
and as a body lubricant. Adults must consume two to three liters of
some form of water each day.
Proteins
Proteins are widely distributed in nature, and no life-forms are known
without them. They are made up of relatively simple organic
compounds, the amino acids, which contain nitrogen and sometimes
sulfur. Humans and animals build the protein they need for growth and
repair of tissues by breaking down the proteins obtained in food into
their component parts, the amino acids, and then building up these
components into proteins of the type needed. The protein-rich foods
from animal sources contain complete proteins, which supply all the
amino acids in the proper proportions necessary in the human diet.
Although it was formerly believed that plant proteins had to be
combined at each meal, research shows that a balanced diet will provide
the proper combinations.
Vitamins and Minerals
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Most foods contain several vitamins and minerals. Vitamins are organic
food substances, needed only in minute quantities but essential for the
normal metabolism of other nutrients. Many vitamins and minerals act
as catalysts or help form catalysts in the body. Minerals – such as
calcium, iodine, and iron – are an essential part of all cells and body
fluids and enter into many functions.
Fats and Carbohydrates
Fats, which are widely distributed in nature, are a concentrated food
source of energy. Fats are glyceryl esters of fatty acids and yield
glycerol and many different fatty acids when broken down by
hydrolysis. Carbohydrates are the most abundant food sources of
energy. Important dietary carbohydrates are divided into two groups –
starches and sugars. The starches, which may be converted into
utilizable sugars in plants or in the human body, are in the grains, the
pulses, the tubers, and some rhizomes and roots. The sugars occur in
many plants and fruits, the most important being sucrose, obtained from
sugarcane or the sugar beet.
Dietary Fiber
Dietary fiber, also known as bulk and roughage, is also an essential
element in the diet even though it provides no nutrients. It consists of
plant cellulose and other indigestible materials in foods, along with
pectins and gums. The chewing it requires stimulates saliva flow, and
the bulk it adds in the stomach and intestines during digestion provides
more time for absorption of nutrients. Diets with sufficient fiber produce
softer, bulkier stools and help to promote bowel regularity and avoid
constipation and other disorders, such as diverticulosis.
Fruits, vegetables, whole-grain breads, and products made from nuts
and legumes are all sources of dietary fiber. A diet overly abundant in
dietary fiber, however, can cut down on the absorption of important
trace minerals during digestion.
Vegetables, fruits, grains, and
legumes constitute a rich
source of dietary fiber.
ESSENRIAL NUTRIENTS 9
Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.
1) What are the essential nutrients in human diet?
2) Where may water be obtained?
3) What are proteins used for?
4) Why are vitamins essential for the normal metabolism of other
nutrients?
5) What are the two groups of important dietary carbohydrates?
True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.
1) _____ Water functions in temperature regulation, as a solvent, in
chemical reactions, and as a body lubricant.
2) _____ A few life-forms do not have proteins.
3) _____ Vitamins are inorganic food substances, needed only in
minute quantities.
4) _____ Carbohydrates are the most abundant food sources of
energy.
5) _____ A diet overly abundant in dietary fiber can help the
absorption of important trace minerals during digestion.
VOCABULARY
Fill in these statements with the words in the box.
bowel beverages indigestible tuber catalysts
digestion absorption constipated starches balanced
1) You should eat more fiber and fruit if you are ……………….
2) Hot …………… include tea, coffee and hot chocolate.
3) Many vitamins and minerals help form …………… in the body.
4) Research shows that a …………… diet will provide the proper
combinations.
5) Eating plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables can reduce the risk of
cancer of the …………….
6) A …………… the short thick round part of an underground stem
or root of some plants, such as potatoes, which stores food and
from which new plants grow.
7) Vegetables are usually cooked to aid …………….
8) Vitamin D is necessary to aid the …………… of calcium from
food.
9) Beans can be rather …………….
10) …………… may be converted into utilizable sugars in plants or in
the human body
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WORD STUDY
A. COMPOUND WORDS
A compound word is two smaller words put together. The meaning of
the compound word is related to the meanings of the two words.
Here are some examples:
bird + house = birdhouse (a place for birds to live)
car + wash = carwash (a place to wash your car)
Exercise: First, make compound words by putting together these pairs of
words.
some + one = …………………………
stop + light = …………………………
bed + room = …………………………
birth + day = …………………………
under + line = …………………………
note + book = …………………………
Now use the compound words to complete the sentences.
1) In class, students write notes in a …………………………
2) I sleep in a bed in my …………………………
3) Cars must stop when the …………………………is red.
4) Next week is my 20th …………………………. I am going to have
a party for all my friends. I will be 20 years old.
5) If the teacher says to put a line under the verb, then we must
………………………… the verb.
6) ………………………… wants to talk to you on the telephone. I
don’t know who it is.
B. -AL, -ABLE, AND -FUL
The suffixes -al, -able, and -ful can be added to the end of some words.
These suffixes mean that something “is full of something” or “has
something.”
Here are some examples:
Roses are beautiful flowers. (full of beauty)
Puerto Rico has many coastal cities. (has a coast)
That is a very comfortable chair. (has comfort)
When you add these suffixes to a word, the new word becomes an
adjective. An adjective describes a noun or a pronoun. It usually comes
before a noun or after the verb be.
ESSENRIAL NUTRIENTS 11
Exercise: Practice making adjectives by adding the suffixes -al, -able, and -ful
to the following words.
Spelling Note: Change y to i before -al and -ful.
noun (add –al) a djective verb (add -able) adjective
coast ……………………… notice ………………………
season ……………………… agree ………………………
industry ……………………… enjoy ………………………
nation ………………………
noun (add -ful) adjective
beauty ………………………
help ………………………
wonder ………………………
Complete each sentence with an adjective from the lists.
1) Most people in Puerto Rico live in …………………… cities.
2) The influence of Spain is very …………………… in San Juan.
3) The people of Puerto Rico are usually …………………… to tourists.
4) San Juan is a modern, …………………… city.
5) Puerto Ricans cannot vote in U.S. …………………… elections.
6) The beaches and mountains of Puerto Rico are ……………………
7) My cousins had a very …………………… time visiting the old city
of San Juan. They bought some souvenirs and had a delicious lunch.
8) In general, Puerto Rico is a …………………… place to visit.
C. -EN
We can change some nouns and adjectives into verbs by adding the
suffix -en. For example, if you add -en to the adjective dark, you get
the word darken. Darken means “to make something dark.”
Exercise: Look at these examples. Complete the chart.
noun verb adjective verb
strength
length
strengthen
…………......
weak
…………......
short
weaken
widen
…………......
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STRUCTURE STUDY
THE PASSIVE (continued)
When we talk about what other people say, believe, etc we can use
two possible passive forms. Compare:
Active: People say that Mr. Ross is a millionaire.
Passive (1): It is said that Mr. Ross is a millionaire.
Passive (2): Mr. Ross is said to be a millionaire.
We often use these passive forms in a formal style and with verbs
such as: say, think, believe, consider, understand, know, report,
expect, allege, claim, acknowledge, fear.
Exercise: Read each sentence. Then make two new sentences in the passive.
1) People expect that taxes will be reduced soon.
2) People say that the monument is over 2000 years old.
3) People expect that the president will resign.
4) People think the fire started at about 8 o’clock.
5) Journalists reported that seven people had been injured in the fire.
6) They expect that a new law will be introduced next year.
7) People say that the concert was very good.
8) People allege that the man drove through the town at 90 miles an
hour.
9) They report that many people are homeless after the floods.
10) Those two houses belong to the same family. People say that there
is a secret tunnel between them.
11) They say that the company is losing a lot of money.
12) People expect that the strike will end soon.
13) They believed that the workers had stolen the money.
14) They say that it was designed by Leonardo da Vinci.
15) They say that there is plenty of oil off our coast.
16) People know that there are thousands of different species of
beetles.
17) They suppose that George is an expert in financial matters.
18) They say that thousands of new jobs will be created in the
computer industry.
19) They reported that all the passengers had died in the crash.
20) They say that there are thousands of people waiting to renew their
passports.
FOOD GROUPS 13
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FOOD GROUPS
READING COMPREHENSION
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Bread and Cereal
The bread-cereal group includes all breads and cereals that are wholegrain,
enriched, or restored. The protein content is not high in cereals,
but these products can be a significant source of protein when they are
consumed in large quantities. All cereals are very high in starch, and
they are good, generally inexpensive sources of energy. The fat content
of cereal products generally is very low unless the germ is included.
Whole-grain products contribute significant quantities of fiber and such
trace vitamins and minerals as pantothenic acid, vitamin E, zinc, copper,
manganese, and molybdenum.
Vegetables
Most vegetables are important sources of minerals, vitamins, and
cellulose. Certain vegetables, such as potatoes, contribute appreciable
quantities of starch. Large amounts of the minerals calcium and iron are
in vegetables, particularly beans, peas, and broccoli. Vegetables also
help meet the body's need for sodium, chloride, cobalt, copper,
magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, and potassium. Carotenes (the
precursor of vitamin A) and ascorbic acid (vitamin C) are abundant in
many vegetables. Vegetables are useful as sources of roughage.
Fruits
The nutritional value of fruits varies. Some fruits are composed largely
of water, but contain valuable vitamins. The citrus fruits are a valuable
14 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
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source of vitamin C, and yellow-colored fruits, such as peaches, contain
carotene. Dried fruits contain an ample amount of iron, and figs and
oranges are an excellent source of calcium. Like vegetables, fruits have
a high cellulose content.
Milk
The milk group includes milk and milk products, cheese, and ice cream.
Milk is a complete protein food containing several protein complexes. It
also contains important amounts of most nutrients, but it is very low in
iron and ascorbic acid and low in niacin. Calcium and phosphorus levels
in milk are very high. Vitamin A levels are high in whole milk, but this
fat-soluble vitamin is removed in the production of skim milk.
Riboflavin is present in significant quantities in milk unless the milk has
been exposed to light.
Modern milking parlors
enable few people to
milk and inspect a large
number of cows in a
clean environment.
Meat and Meat Substitutes
The meat and meat substitutes group includes beef; veal; lamb; pork;
organ meats such as liver, heart, and kidney; poultry and eggs; fish and
shellfish; and dried peas, beans, and nuts. The meat group contains
many valuable nutrients. One of its main nutrients is protein, but meat
also contains cholesterol, which is believed to contribute to coronary
artery disease. The minerals copper, iron, and phosphorus occur in
meats in significant amounts, particularly iron and copper in liver.
Different meats vary in their vitamin content. Liver usually contains a
useful amount of vitamin A. Thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin, all B
vitamins, occur in significant amounts in all meats.
Other Foods
Butter, margarine, other fats, oils, sugars, or unenriched refined-grain
products are included in the diet to round out meals and satisfy the
appetite. Fats, oils, and sugars are added to other foods during
preparation of the meal or at the table. These foods supply calories and
can add to total nutrients in meals.
FOOD GROUPS 15
Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.
1) What nutrients are provided most by breads and cereals?
2) What nutrients are provided by most vegetables?
3) What kinds of fruit contain vitamin C?
4) Why is milk a valuable food?
5) Why is meat believed to contribute to coronary artery disease?
True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.
1) _____ Cereals provide a sufficient amount of protein for the
human body’s need.
2) _____ Vegetables contain a significant amount of sodium,
chloride, cobalt, copper, magnesium, manganese,
phosphorus, and potassium.
3) _____ Vegetables have a high cellulose content, but fruits do not.
4) _____ Vitamin A levels are high in skim milk.
5) _____ Liver usually contains a useful amount of vitamin A.
VOCABULARY
Fill in these statements with the words in the box.
contribute fat-soluble enriched appetite vary
nutritional cholesterol germ mineral roughage
1) The fat content of cereal products generally is very low unless the
………… is included
2) Most breakfast cereals are ………… with vitamins.
3) Certain vegetables, such as potatoes, ………… appreciable
quantities of starch.
4) Fruit and vegetables are important sources of ………….
5) Chemical sweeteners, like preservatives and colorings, have no
value.
6) Vitamin A is a ………… vitamin, so it can dissolve in fat only.
7) Don't spoil your ………… by eating between meals.
8) ………… is thought to be part of the cause of heart disease if there
is too much of it.
9) Different meats ………… in their vitamin content.
10) Many people drink ………… water because they do not want to
drink tap water.
16 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
WORD STUDY
A. REThe
prefix re- means “to do something again.”
Here is an example:
re- + read = reread (to read again)
If you don’t understand a story the first time you read it, then you
should reread it.
Exercise: Add the prefix re- to each word in the box. Then choose the correct
word to complete each sentence.
arrange do order tell
build married take write
1) José made many mistakes in his first composition. Before he gives
it to his teacher tomorrow, he is going to ……………………… it.
2) Dave and Susan Johnson got divorced 10 years ago. Last year
Susan got ………………… and moved to Canada with her new
husband.
3) I think I should ……………………… the furniture in my
apartment. The way I have the tables and chairs now makes the
room look crowded.
4) Children love to hear their grandparents tell stories! They often ask
their grandparents to ……………………… their favorite stories
many times.
5) The new waiter at the restaurant forgot our order for dinner, so we
had to …………………… everything.
6) If you don’t get a good score on the TOEFL exam this weekend,
you can …………………… it next month.
B. WORD FORMS: NOUNS
Sometimes verbs and nouns have the same form. Sometimes we can
change adjectives and verbs to nouns by adding a suffix or changing the
form of the word. Look at the nouns below. Notice how they are related
to other words.
-ity same form
adjective noun verb noun
change
control
divorce
change
control
divorce
different form
electric
able
national
necessary
possible
electricity
ability
nationality
necessity
possibility marry
choose
marriage
choice
FOOD GROUPS 17
Exercise: Practice using direct objects. Choose the correct noun form of the
word in bold print to complete each sentence.
electric 1) Yesterday there was a big storm and we lost the
……………………… at school. Everything was
dark!
national 2) Katarina was born in Spain. Her first language
and her …………………... are Spanish.
marry 3) Parents used to arrange the ………………………
of their child. Now people usually marry the
person they love.
control 4) After 1800 mothers usually stayed home and had
……………………… of the children and the
home.
necessary 5) An education is very important for a good life.
Parents must explain this ………………………
to their children.
able 6) My cousin is able to learn languages very
quickly. She uses this ……………………… in
her job as a tour guide.
choose 7) You must choose which movie to see tonight. I
chose the movie last week. Now it’s your
……………………….
possible 8) Ali doesn’t know where to go on vacation. He
might choose Mexico, but Puerto Rico is another
………………………
C. WORD FORMS: NOUNS
Sometimes in English we can change an adjective to a noun by adding a
suffix or changing the spelling.
Look at the examples. Complete the chart.
-ness t ® ce
adjective noun adjective noun
smooth
happy
weak
smoothness
happiness
………………
important
different
……………
importance
………
silence
When we add a suffix to some verbs, we can make nouns. Sometimes
a verb and a noun have the same form.
Look at these examples.
-ture -er same form
verb noun verb noun verb noun
mix
furnish
mixture
signature
furniture
explore
dry
wash
explorer
dryer
washer
change
work
start
change
work
start
18 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
Exercise: Complete each sentence with the correct form of the word in bold
print.
change 1) The teacher explained the reason for the ………
in the class schedule.
different 2) Modern and traditional clothes are different. Do
you understand the ………………………?
explore 3) James Cook is the name of an ………………
furnish 4) What kind of ……………… do you have in your
apartment?
happy 5) Money does not always bring ……………………
important 6) Social scientists do not understand the
…………………… of animal carvings in Eskimo
society.
mix 7) To make lemonade, mix lemon juice and water.
Then add sugar to the ……………………… .
sign 8) There is a place for your ……………………… at
the bottom of the application. Please sign it.
silent 9) You can almost hear the ……………………… in
northern Canada. It is very peaceful there.
smooth 10) Handling the carvings makes them smoother, and
……………………… improves them.
start 11) The students finished their homework in the
cafeteria only five minutes before the
……………………… of class.
work 12) What kind of ……………………… did you do in
your native country?
STRUCTURE STUDY
THE CAUSATIVE
Form
have object past participle
I am having
How often do you have
We had
Simon has just had
You should have
Are you going to have
a garage
your hair
our computer
a suit
your eyes
new carpets
built at the moment.
cut?
serviced last week.
made.
tested.
fitted in your flat?
Use
We use the structure have something done to talk about something
which we arrange for someone else to do for us.
Compare:
m building a garage at the moment. (I am building the garage
FOOD GROUPS 19
myself.)
m having a garage built at the moment. (I arranged for someone
else to do this for me.”
We can also use have something done when we do not arrange for
someone else to do something for us.
I had my leg broken in a football match.
We had our fence blown down in a storm last week.
We often use have something done un this way when something
unpleasant or unexpected happens to someone.
Note that we can often use get something done instead of have
something done especially in an informal style e.g. I must get this jacket
cleaned.
Exercise: Complete the sentences using the correct form of having something
done.
1) Are you going to ……………………………………… or shall I
throw them away? (these shoes / repair)
2) My neighbors are ……………………………………… onto their
house at the moment. (an extension / build)
3) I must ……………………………………… They keep falling off.
(my glasses / mend)
4) Where do you …………………………………? It always looks
very nice. (your hair / do)
5) I ……………………………………… on my car last month. (four
new tires / fit)
6) I’ve just ……………………………………… (my suit / dry-clean)
7) Peter ……………………………………… while he was out at
work. (his flat / burgle)
8) Mr. and Mrs. Woods ……………………………………… in a
storm. (the roof of their house / damage)
9) Kate ……………………………………… from her bag while she
was out shopping. (her wallet / steal)
10) My brother ……………………………………… in a football
match. (his nose / break)
20 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
4
FOOD PRESERVATION
READING COMPREHENSION
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Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food in such a
way as to stop or greatly slow down spoilage to prevent foodborne
illness while maintaining nutritional value, texture and flavor.
Preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi
and other micro-organisms, as well as retarding the oxidation of fats
which causes rancidity.
Common methods of preserving food include drying, freeze drying,
freezing, vacuum-packing, canning, radiation treatment and adding
preservatives. Other methods that not only help to preserve food, but
also add flavor, include pickling, salting, smoking and curing.
The oldest method of food preservation is by drying, which reduces
water activity sufficient to delay or prevent bacterial growth. Smoking is
sometimes done in conjunction with drying. Although not sufficient by
itself to permit long term storage of food, smoking adds chemicals that
help inhibit the growth of micro-organisms.
Vacuum-packing stores food in a vacuum environment, usually in an
air-tight bag or bottle. The vacuum environment strips bacteria of
oxygen needed for survival, hence preventing the food from spoiling.
Vacuum-packing is commonly used for storing nuts.
Curing draws moisture from the meat through a process of osmosis.
Meat is cured with salt or sugar, or a combination of the two. Nitrates
and nitrites are also often used to cure meat.
FOOD PRESERVATION 21
Method Effect on microbial growth or survival
Refrigeration or chilling Low temperature to retard growth
Freezing Low temperature and reduction of water
activity to prevent growth
Drying, curing and conserving Reduction in water activity sufficient to delay
or prevent growth
Vacuum and oxygen free modified
atmosphere packaging
Low oxygen tension in inhibit strict aerobes
and delay growth of facultive anaerobes
Carbon dioxide enriched modified
atmosphere packaging
Specific inhibition of some micro-organisms
by carbon dioxide
Addition of acids Reduction of pH value and sometimes
additional inhibition by the particular acid
Lactic fermentation Reduction of pH value in situ by microbial
action and sometimes additional inhibition by
the lactic and acetic acids formed and by other
microbial products. (e.g. ethanol, bacteriocins)
Emulsification Compartmentalisation and nutrient limitation
within the aqueous droplets in water-in-oil
emulsion foods
Addition of preservatives Inhibition of specific groups of microorganisms
Pasteurization and appertization Delivery of heat sufficient to inactivate target
micro-organisms to the desired extent
food irradation (Radurization,
radicidation and radappertization)
Delivery of ionising radiation
Application of high hydrostatic
pressure (Pascalization)
Pressure-inactivation of vegetative bacteria,
yeasts and moulds
Main food preservation methods
25
30
35
Pickling is a method of preserving food by placing it in either a brine
(high in salt), or a solution of vinegar which is too acidic to permit
bacterial growth.
Canning involves cooking fruits or vegetables, sealing them in sterile
cans or jars, and boiling the containers to kill or weaken any remaining
bacteria. Various foods have varying degrees of natural protection
against spoilage and may require that the final step occur in a pressure
cooker. High-acid fruits like strawberries require no preservatives to can
and only a short boiling cycle, whereas marginal fruits such as tomatoes
require longer boiling and addition of other acidic elements. Many
vegetables require pressure canning.
A 1950s issue of Popular Mechanics details the impending arrival of
"food irradiation". However, at the present time, the implications
surrounding the irradiation of food are still not fully understood, and the
technology is therefore still not in widespread use. However, irradiation
of potatoes, strawberries, and meat is common in many countries where
22 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
40
45
refrigerated facilities and trucks are not common. In 2002, the FDA
permitted irradiation of meat and poultry to reduce the spread of E. coli
and Salmonella. In the US and most of Europe irradiation of spices is
common, as the only alternative (treatment with gas) has been shown to
be potentially carcinogenic. The process is incorrectly called
"pasteurization" to avoid the reduced sales that arise from the correct
term of "irradiation".
A tomato cannery in Modesto, California
Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.
1) What is the definition of food preservation?
2) What are some common methods of preserving food?
3) Why can vacuum-packing prevent the food from spoiling?
4) What is pickling?
5) Why is food irradiation still not in widespread use?
True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.
1) _____ Food preservation is aimed to stop or greatly slow down
spoilage to prevent foodborne illness.
2) _____ The oxidation of proteins causes rancidity.
3) _____ Pickling, salting, smoking and curing not only help to
preserve food, but also add flavor.
4) _____ Various foods have varying degrees of natural protection
against spoilage.
5) _____ Irradiation of spices can cause cancer.
FOOD PRESERVATION 23
VOCABULARY
Fill in these statements with the words in the box.
osmosis carcinogenic spices preservatives pasteurization
poultry bacteria preserved implications facilities
1) Olives are usually ………… in brine.
2) ………… are chemicals used to keep especially food from
decaying.
3) Curing draws moisture from the meat through a process of ……….
4) Irradiation of potatoes, strawberries, and meat is common in many
countries where refrigerated ………… and trucks are not common.
5) Many people who give up eating meat and ………… carry on
eating fish.
6) The introduction of …………, which kills micro-organisms by
heat, has been a major factor in making milk safer to drink.
7) They are studying the ………… effects of some pesticides used on
fruit.
8) Illnesses caused by ………… can often be treated with antibiotics.
9) Cinnamon, ginger and cloves are all ………….
10) At the present time, the ………… surrounding the irradiation of
food are still not fully understood.
WORD STUDY
A. WORD FORMS: NOUN ENDINGS
So far you have studied many common noun endings. Look at the word
list below and notice how the nouns are related to the other words.
noun adjective verb
1) similarity similar —
2) crowd crowded crowd
3) excellence excellent excel
4) payment — pay
5) equipment — equip
6) popularity popular popularize
7) weakness weak weaken
8) pleasure pleasant please
24 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
Exercise: Choose the correct word form to complete each sentence. Some
nouns may need to be made plural. Use a word from line 1 in
sentence 1, and so on.
1) There are several major …………………… between life in the
United States and in Canada.
2) Lots of people went to the movie theater last night. There was a big
……………………… waiting outside to buy tickets.
3) Keiko had no mistakes on her test yesterday. The teacher wrote
“……………………!” on the top of her test. Keiko was very
happy.
4) If you take a loan from the bank to buy a car, you must make a
…………………… every month until you pay all the money back.
5) Tennis shoes and other sports …………………… are usually very
expensive.
6) It’s hard to understand the …………………… of video games.
Many people play them, but I don’t like them.
7) David is very good at speaking and reading English. His major
…………………… is writing, so he practices all the time.
8) I was so happy when I received a letter from my best friend at
home. It is such a …………………… to get mail when you are far
away from family and friends.
B. - LESS
The suffix less means “without” or “not having something.”
Here is an example:
The number of English words to learn is endless. (“without end”)
Exercise: Add the suffix -less to each word. Then choose the best word for
each sentence.
care ………………… change …………………
hope ………………… worth …………………
help ………………… thought …………………
end ………………… sleep …………………
1) Babies cannot take care of themselves. Someone must help them
because they are …………………….
2) Stephan found an old coin. He thought it was gold, but it wasn’t. In
fact, it had no value. It was …………………….
3) You must take your time and be careful when you write. If you try
to hurry, you will make …………………… mistakes.
4) Michael was sick last night so he could not sleep. Today in class he
was very tired after such a …………………… night.
5) Helen said something that hurt my feelings. I know she didn’t want
to hurt my feelings. She just wasn’t thinking. She made a
…………………… mistake.
FOOD PRESERVATION 25
C. WORD FORMS: NOUNS
Some common noun endings are -sion, -tion, -ation, and -t. Look at this
list of verbs and nouns. Notice how the nouns are related to the verbs.
verb noun verb noun
divide
introduce
explore
educate
prevent
division
introduction
exploration
education
prevention
populate
complicate
inform
produce
fly
population
complication
information
production
flight
Exercise: Choose the best verb or noun from the chart to complete each
sentence. Remember to use the correct verb tenses and singular or
plural noun forms.
1) In the 19th century, parents realized that they had to take care of
their children’s health and try to give them a good
………………………. Before that, most people did not go to
school.
2) The ………………………. of the world is increasing every year.
In the year 2005 there will be at least 7.2 billion people on the
earth.
3) When people in North America ………………………. themselves
to you for the first time, they usually say, “Nice to meet you” and
shake your hand.
4) Some scientists think that drinking green tea is good for your
health. In fact, some people think it helps ……………………….
diseases.
5) The island of Puerto Rico ………………………. a lot of
sugarcane. The sugar that comes from it is sold all over the world.
6) After World War II, Germany was divided into two separate
countries. However, this ………………………. did not last. In
1990 the two Germanies united as one country again.
7) Many centuries ago, people left their countries to search for new
lands. The ………………… of the new world brought people from
many countries together in North America.
8) If you have a question when you are in the library, go to the
………………………. desk and ask one of the librarians for help.
26 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
STRUCTURE STUDY
THE RELATIVE CLAUSE
A noun can be modified by a clause. A clause of this kind is begun by
a relative pronoun and called a relative clause. It always follows the
noun which it modifies and which is known as its antecedent.
Look at the following sentences:
(a) An engineer is a skilled person. He designs, builds or maintains
engines, machines, bridges, railways, etc.
(b) An engineer is a skilled person who designs, builds or maintains
engines, machines, bridges, railways, etc.
The relative pronouns are:
Subject: who, which, that,
Object: who, whom, which, that, Ø
Possessive Determiner: whose (+ a noun)
Adverbial: when, where, why (when and why can be
replaced by that or Ø)
Exercise 1: Join each pair of sentences, making the second sentence a relative
clause.
1) I can’t find the envelopes. I bought it this morning.
2) This is a picture of the place. We’re going there for our holidays.
3) Have you found the money? You lost it.
4) His refusal to tell her the truth is the reason. That’s why she is so
angry with him.
5) Are these all the letters? They came in this morning’s post.
6) The factory is going to close down. I work there.
7) The car has now been found. It was stolen.
8) She’s the person. She gives me a lift to work every day.
9) The outdoor swimming pool has now been closed down. We often
went there as children.
10) The man was very nice. He interviewed me.
11) She’s the girl. Her brother works in the post office.
12) Is there a reason? You want to leave now for that reason.
13) Is Technico the company? Sarah works for them.
14) The house is over 100 years old. Sue has bought it.
15) I’m looking for the person. I’ve just hit his car.
16) Most of the books are still popular today. I read them as a child.
17) The woman is coming back to work soon. I’m doing her job.
18) Edinburgh is the city. I’d most like to live there.
19) His dishonesty is the reason. That’s why I left him.
20) The early morning is the time. I work best then.
FOOD PRESERVATION 27
Exercise 2: Complete the following sentences with an appropriate relative
pronoun.
1) They’re the people ………………… house caught fire.
2) This is the report ………………… the president wanted.
3) The girls ………………… are in my class are all good students.
4) Is that the hospital ………………… you had your operation?
5) Do you remember the time ………………… your car broke down
on the motorway?
6) Our teacher, ………………… is an American, speaks English
perfectly.
7) The car ………………… Hernando used belongs to his uncle.
8) The teacher with ………………… I studied mathematics last year
died last week.
9) They’re the people ………………… children were injured in the
accident.
10) Did they tell you the reason ………………… they wanted you to
do that?
11) Is this the program ………………… you always watch on TV?
12) I don’t understand the reason ………………… he was late.
13) The movies ………………… we saw this summer were all good.
14) What’s the name of the restaurant ………………… you had
lunch?
15) These are the kinds of exercises ………………… help us learn
English.
16) The lamp ………………… you broke is my brother’s.
17) She is one of the workers ………………… went on strike.
18) She was the pilot ………………… flew our 747.
19) It is the little things in life ………………… count.
20) I can remember a time ………………… there was no television.
28 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
5
COOKING
READING COMPREHENSION
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15
20
EARLIEST TYPES OF COOKING
The origins of cooking are obscure. Primitive humans may first have
savored roast meat by chance, when the flesh of a beast killed in a forest
fire was found to be more palatable and easier to chew and digest than
the customary raw meat. They probably did not deliberately cook food,
though, until long after they had learned to use fire for light and warmth.
It has been speculated that Peking man roasted meats, but no clear
evidence supports the theory. From whenever it began, however,
roasting spitted meats over fires remained virtually the sole culinary
technique until the Paleolithic Period, when the Aurignacian people of
southern France began to steam their food over hot embers by wrapping
it in wet leaves. Aside from such crude procedures as toasting wild
grains on flat rocks and using shells, skulls, or hollowed stones to heat
liquids, no further culinary advances were made until the introduction of
pottery during the Neolithic Period.
The earliest compound dish was a crude paste (the prototype of the
pulmentum of the Roman legions and the polenta of later Italians) made
by mixing water with the cracked kernels of wild grasses. This paste,
toasted to crustiness when dropped on a hot stone, made the first bread.
ADVANCES IN COOKING TECHNIQUES
Culinary techniques improved with the introduction of earthenware
(and, more or less concomitantly, the development of settled
communities), as well as the domestication of livestock and the
cultivation of edible plants. A more dependable supply of foodstuffs,
COOKING 29
25
30
35
40
45
50
including milk and its derivatives, was now assured. The roasting spit
was augmented by a variety of fired-clay vessels, and the cooking
techniques of boiling, stewing, braising, and perhaps even incipient
forms of pickling, frying, and oven baking were added. Early cooks
probably had already learned to preserve meats and fish by smoking,
salting, air-drying, or chilling. New utensils made it possible to prepare
these foods in new ways, and such dishes as bacalao à la vizcaina
("dried cod") and finnan haddie (smoked haddock) are still eaten.
The microwave oven cooks a 20 kilo turkey in less than
1/2 hour instead of the 4 to 5 hours it would take in a
standard oven.
COOKING METHODS
Heat-activated cooking methods take five basic forms. Food may be
immersed in liquids such as water, stock, or wine (boiling, poaching,
stewing); immersed in fat or oil (frying); exposed to vapor (steaming
and, to some extent, braising); exposed to dry heat (roasting, baking,
broiling); and subjected to contact with hot fats (sautéing). With minor
modifications, all five methods are applicable to any type of food not
eaten raw, but certain treatments traditionally are rarely used to
prepare particular foods. Deep-fat frying, for example, is not generally
thought the ideal method for preparing steaks or chops.
Boiled foods usually are immersed in flavored or unflavored liquids
for longer periods of time than poached foods, and the cooking liquid
usually takes the form of a thickened sauce when foods are stewed.
The chief difference between frying and sautéing is that frying
produces a crisp surface, sealing natural moisture inside the food,
whereas in the sauté process, natural juices usually mingle with the
pan fat, coating the food with a light sauce. As opposed to steaming,
which does not place foods in direct contact with liquids, braising is
accomplished by first browning food in fat and then placing it in direct
contact with a small amount of liquid within an airtight pan.
Originally, roasted foods were exposed to the action of open fires or
30 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
55
live coals, but in contemporary cookery roasting is synonymous with
baking – that is, cooking by dry heat in a closed oven. Broiling,
whether in an oven or over an open fire or coals, exposes meats to the
direct action of more intense heat, which sears their surfaces quickly
to seal in their juices.
Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.
1) How did primitive humans cook food until the Paleolithic Period?
2) What helped to improve cooking techniques?
3) How may primitive humans have preserved meat and fish?
4) What are the basic cooking methods?
5) What is the main difference between frying and sautéing?
True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.
1) _____ Primitive people cooked food long before they learned to
use fire for light and warmth.
2) _____ Culinary advances were made only after the introduction of
pottery during the Neolithic Period.
3) _____ Deep-fat frying is the common method for preparing steaks
or chops.
4) _____ Boiled foods usually are immersed in liquids for longer
periods of time than poached foods.
5) _____ Nowadays roasted foods are usually cooked over open fires
or live coals.
VOCABULARY
Fill in these statements with the words in the box.
palatable cookery savored embers pickling
foodstuffs sauté airtight immersed utensils
1) …………… the meat for a few minutes over a medium heat before
adding the wine.
2) It was the first chocolate he had tasted for over a year, so he
…………… every mouthful.
3) The shells should be …………… in boiling water for two minutes.
4) The meal was barely …………… – in fact, I thought it was
disgusting.
5) They lack basic ……………, such as bread and milk.
6) In the drawer was a selection of kitchen …………… – spoons,
spatulas, knives and whisks.
7) …………… onions are small onions of a type which are preserved
in vinegar.
8) A …………… book is a book containing recipes which tell you
how to prepare and cook particular dishes.
COOKING 31
9) They poked the glowing …………… and the fire burst into flames.
10) Biscuits will stay crisp if you keep them in an …………… tin.
WORD STUDY
A. OVERThe
prefix over- means “too,” “too much,” or “too many.”
Look at the example:
Third World cities are already overcrowded. (too crowded)
Exercise: Add the prefix over- to each word. Then choose the best word for
each sentence.
eat …………………………………………
populated …………………………………………
weight …………………………………………
heated …………………………………………
slept …………………………………………
cooked …………………………………………
1) There are too many people on the island of Java in Indonesia. Java
is ……………………….
2) We were driving in the mountains on a very hot day, and our car
………………………. . We had to stop and let it cool down.
3) Toshi left the rice in the rice cooker too long. Now the rice is
……………….
4) Martin has a class at 8:00 in the morning. He usually wakes up at
7:00 to get ready. Today he was late for class because he didn’t
wake up until 8:15. He ……………………….
5) If you ………………………. every day, you will soon be
………………………. Eating too much can make you fat, and it’s
not good for your health.
B. -LY
Sometimes we can add the suffix ly to an adjective to make an adverb.
Here is an example:
slowly + -ly = slowly
Please speak slowly so I can understand.
Exercise: Add the suffix -ly to each adjective. Then choose the best adverb for
each sentence.
accidental ……………………………………
inexpensive ……………………………………
careful ……………………………………
silent ……………………………………
thoughtless ……………………………………
32 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
similar ……………………………………
1) Brian …………………… told his friend that he didn’t like the
color of her new car. Then he was sorry for what he said. He didn’t
think about it before he said it.
2) Always read the directions …………………… before you take a
test so you don’t make any careless mistakes.
3) Loud talking is not allowed in the library. You must work
…………………… so other people can study, too.
4) Julia …………………… knocked her glass off the table, and it
broke. She did not mean to do it.
5) If you cook your meals at home and don’t go out too often, you can
live……………………. You don’t have to spend too much money.
C. WORD FORMS: OTHER WORDS WITH -LY
The meanings of a few common words with the suffix -ly are different
from what you might guess. Look at these words and their meanings.
likely = probably
The sky is full of gray clouds. It is likely to rain soon.
greatly = very much
Family life has changed greatly in the last two centuries.
largely = mostly
Shopping centers have developed largely because of traffic
problems in cities.
lately = recently
I havent seen Maria lately, have you? The last time I saw her was
months ago.
hardly = not much, only a little, almost none
There are so many cars in Bangkok that there is hardly any space
to park.
(Note: hardly is a negative word. Don’t use no or not with it.)
widely = in many places, over a large area
English is widely used as a second language. Italian is not.
shortly = in a short time, very soon
I will finish my homework shortly. Then I will play tennis with you.
nearly = almost
Today is November 20. It is nearly winter.
Exercise: Now choose the best -ly word from the above list to complete each
sentence.
1) We are …………………… finished with unit 5. We have only two
more exercises to do.
2) Nick …………………… enjoyed the jazz music festival at school
last week. It was excellent, and Nick loves jazz.
3) The train will arrive …………………… . Please wait in the
waiting area. It will only be a few minutes.
4) Jeff …………………… ever eats in fast-food restaurants because
he is a vegetarian. He usually cooks for himself at home.
COOKING 33
5) Country music is …………………… to be popular for a long time.
It will probably still be popular in 20 years.
6) Euphorbia is not a …………………… known plant. People in
most places have never heard of it.
7) Deserts are growing all over the world. This is ……………………
because of humans and their animals.
8) I used to go to movies a lot, but I haven’t been to one ……………
STRUCTURE STUDY
DEFINING AND NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES
‘Defining’ relative clauses identify nouns: these clauses tell us which
person, thing, etc the speaker means.
I spoke to the woman who owns the hotel. (who owns the hotel tells
us which woman)
The house which Sue has bought is over 100 years old. (which Sue
has bought tells us which house)
‘Non-defining’ relative clause do not tell us which person, thing, etc the
speaker means; these clauses give more information about a person or
thing already identified.
Kens mother, who is 69, has just passed her driving test. (who is
69 does not tell us which woman; we already know that it is Kens
mother)
Sues house, which is in the centre of town, is over 100 years old.
(which is in the centre of town does not tell us which house; we
already know that it is Sues house)
Non-defining clauses are more common in a formal style, especially in
writing.
When we write these clauses, we put commas (,) at the beginning of the
clause (and often at the end of the clause).
Last weekend I met Sue, who told me she was going on holiday
soon.
Frank Morris, who is one of my best friends, has decided to go and
live in France.
Note that in a non-defining clause we cannot use that or Ø.
She gave me the key, which I put in my pocket.
My uncle John, who lives in Manchester, is coming to visit me next
week.
34 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
Exercise: Rewrite the sentences making the second sentence into a nondefining
relative clause and putting it into the correct place.
1) When I was in town, I met your sister. She was shopping for some
clothes.
2) Their house needs a lot of work doing to it. It is near the beach.
3) Sandra’s just got a new job with Capital Insurers. It’s a much better
company than the last one she worked for.
4) The new manager seems to be a very capable woman. I met her last
week.
5) This case is full of books. I carried it all the way from the station.
6) The Games International Company has just gone bankrupt. We
have done business with them for many years.
7) The hospital has handed out redundancy notices to all its staff. It is
due to close down next year.
8) The prisoners are requesting more time out of their cells. Their
families are campaigning on their behalf.
9) The new government is now facing major problems. It came to
power with a lot of public support.
10) Her latest novel is really good. I read it on holiday.
11) The Home Affairs Minister is suspected of being involved in a
financial scandal. The opposition have accused the minister of
lying.
12) The Education Department is changing its policy on single sex
schools. Mrs. Parkinson is in charge of the department.
13) The Lilley and Swan department store has made reductions on
most of its goods. The store has a sale on at the moment.
14) The principal actor could hardly speak last night due to a sore
throat. He normally has a wonderful voice.
15) The sales manager is planning a new advertising campaign. I
support her ideas.
16) The oldest method of food preservation is by drying. reduces water
activity sufficient to delay or prevent bacterial growth.
17) Dr. Rowan has had to do all his own typing. His secretary resigned
two week ago
18) Meat contains cholesterol. Cholesterol is believed to contribute to
coronary artery disease.
19) My mother knew that they were in the building. She had been
talking to them earlier.
20) We went away in August. The children were on holiday from
school then.
HUMAN DIET 35
6
HUMAN DIET
READING COMPREHENSION
5
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Because the human diet is typically diverse, human beings are classified
as omnivores rather than as herbivores (plant eaters) or carnivores (meat
eaters). Certain groups of people do derive most of their food from
animal sources while other people practice vegetarianism. By far the
majority of humankind, however, eats a wide range of foods of both
animal and vegetable origin. Prehistoric humans were hunter-gatherers
who fed on animals, insects, berries, roots, and leaves. The range of
dietary choices was extended when humans learned how to use fire for
cooking and when they developed weapons for hunting and trapping
larger game; most importantly, they eventually learned how to rear
animals for their own use and how to cultivate crops. Today some
isolated groups are still hunter-gatherers, but most human diets derive
from agriculture and animal husbandry.
Asian-style noodles
36 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
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Italian-style pasta
Social factors and cultural practices in most countries have a great
influence on what people eat, on how they prepare food, on their feeding
practices, and on the foods they prefer. Throughout history, different
societies have exhibited great variations in diet. But during the 20th
century, greatly increased world trade and improved communications
have resulted in major changes in the variety of foods eaten in many
countries. Asian cuisines have become popular in Europe and North
America, and Western "fast foods" are increasingly available in
developing countries. In general, the staple food in most countries has
not changed.
Throughout history, as long as the food supply was sufficient the
traditional diets of most cultures have provided all the essential nutrients.
These are divided into macronutrients (carbohydrates, fats, proteins) and
micronutrients (vitamins and minerals). In general, humans obtain most
of their food energy from carbohydrates (perhaps 65% worldwide);
lesser amounts come from fat (about 20%) and protein (about 15%),
mainly from meat and fish.
The major cause of undernutrition and nutritional-deficiency diseases has
seldom been traditional food habits. The usual cause has been a lack of
adequate food due to poverty or consumption of too limited a variety of
food. Infectious diseases and lack of care contribute importantly to
malnutrition in children. Protein-energy malnutrition is generally due to
consumption of too little food, and micronutrient deficiencies such as
anemia, iodine deficiency disorders, and pellagra are due to diets
inadequate in specific minerals and vitamins.
Advances in agriculture and food-processing techniques have afforded
the potential of increased food supply and a nutritionally enriched diet,
but modernization and Westernization of food habits have also had
deleterious effects. For example, at the turn of the 20th century new rice
milling techniques caused an outbreak of beriberi (a thiamine-deficiency
disease) in Asia, resulting in millions of deaths. The substitution of
bottle-feeding for breast-feeding among poor families in developing
countries has been responsible for a great deal of malnutrition and
diarrhea, as well as infant deaths.
HUMAN DIET 37
50
Increasingly, changes in diets in the developing countries due to
Westernization and greater affluence has led to an increase in chronic
diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, obesity, hypertension, and
certain cancers. These diseases are already major causes of mortality in
the industrialized countries. Much of this is related to high intakes of
foods of animal origin and a greater percentage of food energy coming
from fats, oils, and sugar and less coming from complex carbohydrates.
Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.
1) Why are human beings classified as omnivores?
2) When was the range of dietary choices extended?
3) What has the major cause of undernutrition and nutritionaldeficiency
diseases been?
4) What is the harmful effect of the substitution of bottle-feeding for
breast-feeding among poor families in developing countries?
5) What have changes in diets in the developing countries resulted in?
True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.
1) _____ The major cause of nutritional-deficiency diseases has been
traditional food habits.
2) _____ Most groups of people do derive most of their food from
animal sources.
3) _____ Today no groups are still hunter-gatherers.
4) _____ Social factors and cultural practices in most countries have
a great influence on their feeding practices.
5) _____ Modernization and Westernization of food habits have also
had harmful effects.
VOCABULARY
Fill in these statements with the words in the box.
reared hypertension malnutrition mortality bottle-feeding
feed deficiency vegetarian staple diet breast-feeding
1) If you …………… your dog on cakes and biscuits, it's not
surprising he's so fat.
2) A clean water supply played a large part in reducing the
…………… rate.
3) A well-balanced …………… diet can be a lot healthier for you than
the average meat-eater's diet because it contains less fat and more
fiber.
4) The scientists tracked one lot of infected meat back to the farms
where the animals had been …………….
5) Infectious diseases and lack of care contribute importantly to
…………… in children.
38 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
6) …………… is extremely beneficial to the health of newborn
babies.
7) Pregnant women often suffer from iron …………….
8) We are conducting extensive research into treatments for …………
and heart disease.
9) Bamboo is the panda's …………….
10) She started …………… her baby when she went back to work.
WORD STUDY
A. WORD FORMS: ADJECTIVES
Some common adjective endings are -al, -able, -ful, -less, -t, and -ous.
Look at the words in the list below. Notice the endings on the adjectives.
See how the adjectives are related to the other words.
adjective verb noun
1) experimental experiment experiment
2) natural — nature
3) preventable prevent prevention
4) suitable suit —
5) believable believe belief
6) successful succeed success
7) violent — violence
8) different differ difference
9) religious — religion
10) useful, useless use use
Exercise: Choose the best word to complete each sentence. Use a word from
line 1 in sentence 1, and so on.
1) Scientists have planted jojoba and euphorbia crops on ……………
farms in several countries.
2) The ancient Egyptians used plants as ……………………medicine
to treat diseases.
3) Many common diseases of the 19th century are ……………………
now. People no longer get sick from these diseases.
4) There are many wild plants in the woods, but not all of them are
……………………for humans to eat.
5) I don’t ……………………your story about meeting people from
Mars. I don’t think it’s true.
6) The first experiment with the new crop did not ………………… .
The plants died, and the scientists had to begin again.
7) Some people think that television is too …………………… . There
are too many programs that show people fighting and killing each
other.
8) It can be very cold in parts of the United States during the winter,
but it is almost never cold in Australia. The …………………… in
HUMAN DIET 39
weather is very great in these two areas of the world.
9) Helen goes to church every day and often reads the Bible. She is
very …………………….
10) The jojoba is a very …………………… plant. It can be used to
soothe burns, to make hair shiny, and to make a drink similar to
coffee.
B. WORD FORMS: ADJECTIVES
Adjectives have only one form. They can never be plural.
Look at these examples:
We have a two-week vacation from school in March.
It is a four-hour flight from Chicago to Los Angeles.
Exercise: Change the words in bold print to hyphenated adjectives and rewrite
the sentences. The first one is done for you.
1) A flight from Los Angeles to London is ten hours.
It is a ten-hour flight from Los Angeles to London.
2) High school students in California have a summer vacation for
three months.
………………………………………………………………………
3) It is a long drive from Toronto to Winnipeg. It takes four days.
………………………………………………………………………
4) It is a short trip from New York to Boston. It is only 200
kilometers.
………………………………………………………………………
C. WORD FORMS
Look at the list of verbs, nouns, and adjectives below. Notice how they
are related to each other.
Verb Noun Adjective
1) — scene, scenery scenic
2) — science, scientist scientific
3) persuade persuasion persuasive
4) protect protection protective
5) continue continuation continuous
6) — history, historian historical
7) enjoy enjoyment enjoyable
8) suggest suggestion suggestive
9) solve solution —
10) organize organization organized
40 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
Exercise: Choose the correct word for each sentence. Use a word from line 1 in
sentence 1, and so on.
1) Kei brought a book of photographs of Japan to class last week.
Japan has very beautiful ………………………. We saw pictures of
mountains, lakes, and lovely cherry trees.
2) Chemistry and biology are two kinds of ………………………… .
3) Bill could persuade you to do almost anything. He is a very
………………………… person. He talked me into going camping
in Yellowstone National Park.
4) Some of the huge redwood trees in California are under the
………………………… of the National Park Service. The service
keeps the trees safe and healthy.
5) Workers can become very tired of the ……………………… noise
in a factory. The noise never stops.
6) Most countries have a ……………………… museum that explains
the history of the country in pictures, films, and art.
7) People of all ages like to go to national parks. A visit to a national
park is …………………… for the whole family.
8) I would like to make a ……………………… for your trip. Take a
train ride across Canada. I did it last year. The scenery is beautiful.
9) Many countries are trying to ……………………… the problem of
the growth of the deserts.
10) The United Nations is an international ………………………….
STRUCTURE STUDY
REDUCTION OF RELATIVE CLAUSES
Relative clauses are often reduced or contracted as follows:
The man who is talking to John is from Korea.
The man talking to John is from Korea.
English has an alphabet that consists of 26 letters.
English has an alphabet consisting of 26 letters.
Anyone who wants to come with us is welcome.
Anyone wanting to come with us is welcome.
The ideas which are presented in that book are interesting.
The ideas presented in that book are interesting.
Half of the people who had been invited to the party didnt turn up.
Half of the people invited to the party didnt turn up.
HUMAN DIET 41
Exercise: Reduce (contract) the underline part of the following sentences:
1) An agreement has been signed to protect the forests which are being
cut down all over the world.
2) Be sure to follow the instructions that are given at the top of the
page.
3) Companies that already use computers have found that the number
of staff that is needed for stock-control can be substantially reduced.
4) Did you get the message that concerned the special meeting?
5) Do you know the woman who is coming toward us?
6) Her books, which are read by people all over the world, are still
immensely popular.
7) I come from a city that is located in the southern part of the country.
8) I haven’t yet had an opportunity to think over the proposals that
were made at the last meeting.
9) The children who attend that school receive a good education.
10) The experiment which was conducted at the University of Chicago
was successful.
11) The fence which surrounds our house is made of wood.
12) The firm’s latest product, which was launched only six months ago,
has already captured a significant share of the market.
13) The head office has now moved to new premises which overlook
the Thames.
14) The Indians who lived in Peru before the discovery of the New
World by Europeans belonged to the Incan culture.
15) The new hostel, which accommodates 200 students, will be opened
next month.
16) The people who are being asked to take early retirement are all over
the age of 60.
17) The people who are waiting for the bus in the rain are getting wet.
18) The psychologists who study the nature of sleep have made
important discoveries.
19) The scientists who are searching the causes of cancer are making
progress.
20) Their letter, which explained why they had not paid promptly,
arrived a few days later.
21) They live in a house that was built in 1890.
22) They sent us an invoice that gave details of all the goods that had
been ordered.
23) We can deliver within three days any articles that are ordered from
stock.
24) We have an apartment which overlooks the park.
25) We received your Giro slip today, which informed us that you had
paid £126.00 into your account.
42 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
7
FOOD POISONING
READING COMPREHENSION
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10
Foodborne illness or food poisoning is caused by consuming food
contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, toxins, viruses, prions or
parasites. Such contamination usually arises from improper handling,
preparation or storage of food. Foodborne illness can also be caused by
adding pesticides or medicines to food, or by accidentally consuming
naturally poisonous substances like poisonous mushrooms or reef fish.
Contact between food and pests, especially flies, rodents and
cockroaches, is a further cause of contamination of food.
Although most mushrooms are edible, several
species can cause serious poisoning
Some common diseases are occasionally foodborne mainly through the
water vector, even though they are usually transmitted by other routes.
These include infections caused by Shigella, Hepatitis A, and the
parasites Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum.
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION DEFINITION
Foodborne illnesses are defined by the World Health Organization as diseases,
usually either infectious or toxic in nature, caused by agents that enter the
body through the ingestion of food. Every person is at risk of foodborne illness.
Preventing Bacterial Food Poisoning
FOOD POISONING 43
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The prevention is mainly the role of the state, through the definition of
strict rules of hygiene and a public service of veterinary survey of the
food chain, from farming to the transformation industry and the delivery
(shops and restaurants). This regulation includes:
· traceability: in a final product, it must be possible to know the
origin of the ingredients (originating farm, identification of the
harvesting or of the animal) and where and when it was
processed; the origin of the illness can thus be tracked and
solved (and possibly penalized), and the final products can be
removed from the sale if a problem is detected;
· respect of hygiene procedures like HACCP and the "cold chain";
· power of control and of law enforcement of the veterinarians.
At home, the prevention mainly consists of:
· the respect of the food storage and food preservation methods
(especially refrigeration), and checking the expiration date;
· washing the hands before preparing the meal and before eating;
· washing the fresh vegetables with clear water, especially when
not cooked (e.g. fruits, salads);
· washing the dishes after use;
· keeping the kitchen clean.
Spray washing of harvested tomatoes prior to processing.
Bacteria need warmth, moisture, food and time to grow. The presence,
or absence, of oxygen, salt, sugar and acidity are also important factors
for growth. In the right conditions, one bacterium can multiply using
binary fission to become four million in eight hours. Since bacteria can
be neither smelled nor seen, the best way to ensure that food is safe is to
follow principles of good food hygiene. This includes not allowing raw
or partially cooked food to touch dishes, utensils, hands or work
surfaces previously used to handle even properly cooked or ready to eat
food.
High salt, high sugar or high acid levels keep bacteria from growing,
44 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
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50
55
which is why salted meats, jam, and pickled vegetables are traditional
preserved foods.
The most frequent causes of bacterial foodborne illness are crosscontamination
and inadequate temperature control. Therefore control of
these two matters is especially important.
Thoroughly cooking food until it is piping hot, i.e. above 70°C will
quickly kill virtually all bacteria, parasites or viruses, except for
Clostridium botulinum and Clostridium perfringens, which produces a
heat-resistant spore that survives temperatures up to 100°C. Once
cooked, hot foods should be kept hot – above 63°C stops microbial
growth.
Cold foods should be kept cold, below 5°C (41°F). However, Listeria
monocytogenes and Yersinia enterocolitica can both grow at refrigerator
temperatures.
Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.
1) What is food poisoning according to the WHO?
2) How are foodborne diseases are transmitted?
3) What regulations should be observed to avoid food poisoning?
4) What must be done at home to avoid poisoning?
5) What are the most frequent causes of bacterial foodborne illness?
True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.
1) _____ Contact between food and pests is also a cause of
contamination of food.
2) _____ All diseases are occasionally foodborne mainly through
the water vector.
3) _____ The prevention against bacterial food poisoning is mainly
the role of the state.
4) _____ Bacteria need warmth, moisture, food and time to grow.
5) _____ Cooking food until above 70°C will kill all bacteria,
parasites or viruses.
FOOD POISONING 45
VOCABULARY
Fill in these statements with the words in the box.
veterinary spore vectors ingredient food chain
expiration hygiene poisonous viruses contaminated
1) The best way to ensure that food is safe is to follow principles of
good food …………….
2) The drinking water has become …………… with lead.
3) Can you tell me the difference between …………… mushrooms
and edible varieties?
4) Following the outbreak of the disease, several sheep and lambs
were destroyed on …………… advice.
5) Sheep products are being fed to cows, thereby passing into the
human …………….
6) Coconut is a basic …………… for many curries.
7) The …………… date on this yogurt was November 20.
8) Mosquitoes are the …………… of malaria.
9) This group of bacteria have the ability to change into a dormant
form called a …………… if the cell starts to run out of food.
10) In humans, …………… cause such illnesses as the common cold,
flu and measles.
WORD STUDY
A. -IZE
You can change some words into verbs by adding the suffix -ize. The
suffix -ize means “to make into (something)” or “to cause to be
(something).”
Here is an example:
Radio helped to popularize country music.
popular + -ize = to make something (country music) popular
Spelling Note: When a word ends in y, drop they before adding
-ize.
Exercise: Add the suffix -ize to each word. Then choose the best word for each
sentence. Be sure to use the correct tense.
memory …………………… special ……………………
winter …………………… modern ……………………
colony …………………… industrial ……………………
46 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
1) Spain and Portugal started many new cities in the New World,
especially south of Mexico. These two countries …………………
most of Central and South America.
2) The Greens bought a beautiful old house in the country. They
………………………… the kitchen by adding a dishwasher, a
microwave, and a new refrigerator. The rest of the house is not
modern. It has simple furniture and old wood floors, but it’s very
nice.
3) Victor is studying engineering at the university. After two years of
general studies, he wants to ………………………… in biomedical
engineering.
4) Sometimes there are no rules for irregular verbs in English. If you
want to remember them, you have to …………………………
them and use them often.
5) Every fall I take my car to the auto mechanic. He changes the oil
and adds some chemicals to help it run well during the winter. He
thinks all people should ………………………… their cars to
prevent problems during the very cold months.
6) Developing countries want to …………………………as fast as
possible. They want to change from a society of farm workers to a
society of modern factory workers. Having a strong industry will
help these countries grow.
B. -IVE
Adjectives that end with the suffix -ive mean “able to do something.”
Here is an example:
David is very persuasive. He can persuade people to do almost
anything.
Exercise: Look at the list of adjectives with the suffix -ive. Notice how they are
related to other words. Then choose the best adjective for each
sentence.
adjective other forms
(un)productive product (noun)
(un)imaginative imagine (verb)
(in)active act (verb)
(non)destructive destruction (noun)
(un)protective protect (verb)
1) Ahmed is very ………………………… in the International
Student Organization. He goes to meetings every week and helps
the new members get to know each other.
2) Desert soil is ………………………… without water. Even desert
plants need water. Without it, the soil becomes dry and cannot
produce healthy plants.
3) The storms were very …………………………. The winds
knocked over trees and damaged houses.
4) Writers and artists are very …………………………people. They
FOOD POISONING 47
need to have wild imaginations to create stories and paintings.
5) Ms. Miller is very …………………………of her children. She
worries that something bad will happen to one of them, so she tries
to protect them and keep them safe.
C. WORD FORMS
Exercise: Look at the words in the list. Notice how they are related to each
other. Then choose the best word for each sentence. Use a word
from line 1 in sentence 1, and so on.
verb noun adjective
1) prepare preparation —
2) value value valuable
3) encourage encouragement encouraging
4) — ice icy
5) imagine imagination (un)imaginative /
(un)imaginable
6) produce product / production (un)productive
7) discover discovery —
8) depend (in)dependence (in)dependent /
(un)dependable
9) educate education educational
10) colonize colony colonial
1) A big holiday dinner requires special ………………… . We clean
the house and spend hours and hours in the kitchen preparing
everything we need. It is a lot of work and a lot of fun.
2) Gold is more …………… than silver. It is always more expensive.
3) George succeeded at the university because his parents gave him so
much ………………… Every day they told him to keep working
hard. They told him they were proud of him. They knew he could
do it, and he did.
4) Yesterday afternoon it rained, and at night the temperature dropped
below zero. In the morning the streets were covered with
…………………………. Driving was very dangerous.
5) What do you think life will be like in 200 years? Use your
…………………………and describe what you think.
6) Japan has greatly increased its …………………………of cars.
More cars are made in Japan now than ever before.
7) Marie Curie made an important scientific ……………………… .
She discovered radium.
8) David is very …………………………. If he says he will do
something, you always know he will do it.
9) Films used in the classroom are usually ……………………. They
provide information we can learn. Films at movie theaters are
usually for enjoyment only.
10) People in Quebec speak French because Quebec was once a French
……………………….
48 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
STRUCTURE STUDY
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
Adverbial clauses, like adverbs, tell us something further about the verb
and answer the questions When? Where? How? Why? etc.
Here are some of the most common conjunctions used to introduce
adverbial clauses:
Time when, after, before, as, as soon as, by the time (that),
once, since/ever since, until/till, whenever, while
Place where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere
Manner as, as if, as though
Comparison than, as ... as
Reason because, as, since
Purpose so that, in order that, in case
Result so ... that, such a ... that
Condition if, unless, provided/providing (that), so/as long as
Contrast although/though/even though, while, whereas
Note: We generally use the present simple to refer to the future in
adverbial clauses of time and condition:
When/If I come to London, Ill come and see you.
and we use the present perfect in place of the future perfect:
When Ive finished my dinner, Ill come and help you.
Exercise: Complete the following with an appropriate conjunction. In some
sentences, more than one conjunction is possible.
1) I’m sorry I wasn’t here earlier but I came ……………… I could.
2) I’m staying in all weekend ……………… I can get my work done.
3) He spoke to me ……………… it was all my fault.
4) He didn’t react ……………… I’d hoped; he was actually rather
angry.
5) Things are never ……………… bad ……………… you think they
are.
6) He’d like to be an actor ……………… his father would like him to
be a lawyer.
7) She’s ……………… interested in her work ……………… she
never seems to do anything else.
8) I’ll meet you ……………… you like; I don’t mind where it is.
9) I won’t believe you ………………………… I’ve seen it for
myself.
10) She seems happy ………………………… she can’t find a job.
11) ………………………… I didn’t feel very well, we decided to
leave early.
FOOD POISONING 49
12) The money was hidden ……………… no-one could find it.
13) ……………… he’s not interested in classical music, he decided
not to go to the concert.
14) I’ll come with you ……………… we don’t stay late. I need to be
up early tomorrow.
15) ……………… I like him, I sometimes find him very irritating.
16) I’ll give you my phone number ……………… you need to get in
touch with me.
17) You can’t travel abroad ……………… you have a passport.
18) ……………… no one has any further questions, the meeting will
be adjourned.
19) ……………… bacteria can be neither smelled nor seen, the best
way to ensure that food is safe is to follow principles of good food
hygiene.
20) Some common diseases are occasionally foodborne mainly through
the water vector, ……………… they are usually transmitted by
other routes.
21) At simplest, processing may involve only picking, sorting, and
washing fruits and vegetables ……………… they are sent to
market.
22) ……………… people have known about spoilage and some
preservation methods to prevent it for centuries, it was only in 1857
that French chemist Louis Pasteur demonstrated the role of
microorganisms in the process.
23) Curing and smoking preserve food by binding or removing water
…………… it is not available for the growth of microorganisms.
24) Refrigeration is advantageous ……………… it does not cause
chemical or physical changes to food.
25) …………… irradiation involves minimal heating, it has very little
effect on the taste, texture, and nutritive value of food.
26) Genetic engineering has been practiced for thousands of years,
…………… humans began selectively breeding plants and animals
to create more nutritious, better tasting foods.
27) A person can survive only eight to ten days without water,
…………… it takes weeks or even months to die from a lack of
food.
28) Water needs are increased …………… a person suffers from
diarrhea or vomiting or undergoes heavy physical exercise.
29) …………… fibers provide no energy or building materials, they
play a vital role in our health.
30) Warm-blooded animals require more food for energy production
…………… do cold-blooded animals.
50 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
8
ORGANIC FOOD
READING COMPREHENSION
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Organic food has both a popular meaning, and in some countries, a legal
definition. In everyday conversation, it usually refers to all “naturally
produced” foods, or the product of organic farming. As a legal term, it
means certified organic. The distinction is important, as the two
definitions can represent quite different products.
Types of organic food
Organic foods, like food in general, can be grouped into two categories,
fresh and processed, based on production methods, availability and
consumer perception.
Fresh food is seasonal and highly perishable. Fresh produce – vegetables
and fruits – is the most available type of organic food, and closely
associated with organic farming. It is often purchased directly from the
growers, at farmers' markets, from on-farm stands, through specialty
food stores, and through community-supported agriculture projects.
Unprocessed animal products – organic meat, eggs, dairy – are less
common. Prices are significantly higher than for conventional food, and
availability is lower. They are still premium priced items.
For fresh food, “organic” usually means:
· produced without synthetic chemicals (e.g. fertilizers, pesticides,
antibiotics, hormones)
· free of genetically modified organisms
· (often, but not necessarily) locally grown
Processed food accounts for most of the items in a supermarket. Little of
ORGANIC FOOD 51
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40
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50
it is organic, and organic prices are often high. In spite of this, organic
processed products are now primarily purchased from supermarkets.
The majority of processed organics comes from large food
conglomerates, as producing and marketing products like frozen entrees
and other convenience foods is beyond the scope of the original small
organic producers.
For processed organic food, the general definition is:
· contains only (or at least a certain specified percentage of)
organic ingredients
· contains no artificial food additives
· processed without artificial methods, materials and conditions
(e.g. no chemical ripening, no food irradiation)
Organic Farming
Identifying organic food
Early organic consumers, looking for essentially chemical-free fresh or
minimally processed food, had to buy direct from growers: Know your
farmer, know your food was a practical reality. Organic food at first
comprised mainly fresh vegetables. Individual ideas of what exactly
constituted “organic” could be developed and verified through talking to
farmers and actually observing farm conditions and farming activities.
Small farms can grow vegetables (and raise livestock) using organic
farming practices, with or without certification, and this is more or less
something a direct consumer can monitor.
As consumer demand for organic foods increases, high volume sales
through mass outlets, typically supermarkets, is rapidly replacing the
direct farmer connection. For supermarket consumers, food production
is not easily observable. Product labeling, like “certified organic”, is
relied on. Government regulations and third-party inspectors are looked
to for assurance.
With widespread distribution of organic food, the processed food
52 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
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category has also become dominant, confusing the issue further.
Processed foods are more difficult to understand non-technically.
Commercial preparation methods, food additives, packaging, and the
like are outside the direct experience of most people (including organic
farmers). Traditional and minimally processed products, like flour and
rice; baked goods; and canned, frozen, and pickled fruits and vegetables,
are easier for consumers to understand by comparison with home
preparation methods, although home and mass-production techniques
are quite different. For convenience foods, like frozen prepared dishes,
cooked breakfast cereals, and margarine, ingredients and methods are
quite a mystery. A “certified organic” label is usually the only way for
consumers to trust that a processed product is “organic”.
Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.
1) What are the two meanings of the term “organic food”?
2) For fresh food, what does “organic” usually mean?
3) For processed organic food, what does “organic” usually mean?
4) How was organic food identified in the past?
5) How is organic food identified nowadays?
True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.
1) _____ Prices for organic food are significantly higher than for
conventional food.
2) _____ Most of the items in a supermarket are unprocessed.
3) _____ Processed organic food must not contain any food
additives.
4) _____ Small farms that grow vegetables and raise livestock using
organic farming practices need certification.
5) _____ Consumers can identify an organic processed product only
thanks to a “certified organic” label.
VOCABULARY
Fill in these statements with the words in the box.
perishable livestock cereal categories entrée
convenience farming additives ripen conventional
1) Organic foods can be grouped into two, …………… fresh and
processed.
2) The classification of …………… by 'E' number is made under an
EC directive.
3) The supermarket has its …………… foods delivered by air rather
than truck to ensure freshness.
4) …………… food is food that is almost ready to eat when it is
bought and can be prepared for eating quickly and easily.
ORGANIC FOOD 53
5) Organic food is usually much more expensive than ……………
food.
6) Farmers are involved in a constant battle to control vermin which
ruin their crops and damage their …………….
7) The …………… is the main dish of the meal or a dish served
before the main course.
8) Olives turn from green to black as they …………….
9) Cornflakes are a popular breakfast …………… in Britain.
10) Sheep …………… is a major business in Australia and New
Zealand.
WORD STUDY
A. -SHIP
Many nouns end in -ship. The suffix -ship means “the condition of’” or
“the art of.”
Here are some examples:
One United Nations conference was about the uses and ownership
of oceans.
Alex and I have had a wonderful friendship for many years.
Exercise: Add the suffix -ship to each word. Then choose the best word for
each sentence. Make the word plural if necessary.
member ………………… friend …………………
hard ………………… relation …………………
sportsman …………………
1) People who play sports should follow the rules of the game and be
friendly to the other team. This is good ………………………….
2) Life was very difficult for the first explorers of Antarctica. The
weather was terribly cold, they didn’t always have enough to eat,
and some of them died. These early explorers suffered many
………………………….
3) The …………………… of the International Student Organization
increases every semester. This semester there are 105 members —
that’s 20 more members than before.
4) Marie and Anne became friends when they were in school together.
Now they are both grandmothers, and they are still friends. Their
………………………… has lasted for more than fifty years!
5) What is the ………………………… between goats and deserts?
How do goats cause deserts to become larger?
54 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
B. ENSometimes
we can add the prefix en- to a word to make a verb. The
meaning of the new verb is related to the meaning of the original word.
Look at these examples:
Police sometimes use force to enforce laws.
I want this picture made larger. I will take it to the photo store to
have it enlarged.
Exercise: Add the prefix en- to each word. Then choose the best verb for each
sentence. Be sure to use the correct endings and tenses.
joy …………………… large ……………………
able …………………… danger ……………………
rich ……………………
1) Some soil is very poor and is not good for growing crops. Farmers
need to ………………… the soil in order for plants to grow.
2) United Nations organizations ………………………… people in
developing countries to improve their education programs and
industry.
3) David really ………………………… his trip to Yellowstone
National Park last summer. He said he had a wonderful time.
4) The Smiths think their house is too small for their family. They
want to ……………………… it by adding two more bedrooms.
5) Krill is important to the chain of life in the Antarctic Ocean. If
humans catch too much krill, it might ………………………… the
lives of penguins and other animals that need krill for food.
C. -AGE
Many nouns in English end with the suffix -age.
Look at the example:
A passage connects those two buildings. In winter people can walk
through the hall from one building to the other without going
outside.
Exercise: Add the suffix -age to each word. Then choose the best noun for
each sentence.
Spelling notes:
If a word ends in y, change they to i before adding -age.
If a word ends in e, drop the e before adding -age.
marry …………………… out ……………………
short …………………… post ……………………
store …………………… pack ……………………
1) Louis bought presents to send to his parents. He packed them
carefully in a box. Then he took the ………………………… to the
ORGANIC FOOD 55
post office and mailed it.
2) Because of very bad weather most of the Brazilian coffee crop
died. Now the supermarkets in the United States are short of
coffee. They do not have enough coffee to sell because of this
………………………….
3) Alice and Paul got married 20 years ago. They are still very happy
together today. They have a great ………………………….
4) How much ………………………… do you need to send a letter to
Saudi Arabia? You can find out at the post office.
5) The electricity went out last night during the storm. No one could
turn on the lights. The power ………………………… lasted for
three hours.
6) Our apartment building has a ………………………… room. It is a
place to put things that people do not use very often.
D. -IST
Many nouns in English end in -ist. The suffix -ist means “a person who
does something.”
Look at the example:
A chemist is a person who works in chemistry.
Exercise: Complete each sentence with a noun that ends in the suffix -ist. The
words in bold print are related to the nouns you should use. Make
the nouns plural if necessary. (When you are finished, check your
spelling with this list: finalists, guitarists, artist, zoologist, pianist,
naturalist, scientist.)
1) Two teams are playing in the final games for the World Cup. One
of these two ……………………… will win the competition. That
team will be the best soccer team in the world.
2) Some country musicians are excellent ……………………… They
can sing and play the guitar at the same time.
3) Pablo Picasso was a famous ……………………… You can see his
art in museums all over the world.
4) Carol is interested in animals. She studies zoology at the university.
She wants to become a ……………………….
5) Sezgi has studied piano all of her life. She is going to be a famous
……………………… one day.
6) If you go to a national park, you can sometimes hear a ……………
talk about the natural beauty that you see.
7) Albert Einstein was a famous ……………………… He made a lot
of important discoveries in science.
56 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
STRUCTURE STUDY
REDUCTION ADVERBIAL CLAUSES (1)
Some adverbial clauses may be reduced or contracted, using participles.
Note that an adverbial clause can be reduced in this way only when the
subject of the adverbial clause and the subject of the main clause are the
same.
· Time clauses
Since Mary came to this country, she has made many friends.
Since coming to this country, Mary has made many friends.
Before I left for work, I ate breakfast.
Before leaving for work, I ate breakfast.
After he (had) finished his homework, he went to bed.
After finishing / having finished his homework, he went to bed.
Having finished his homework, he went to bed.
While I was walking down the street, I ran into an old man.
While walking down the street, I ran into an old man.
Walking down the street, I ran into an old man.
When he reached the age of 21, he received his inheritance.
Upon / On reaching the age of 21, he received his inheritance.
· Cause clauses
Because she needed some money to buy a book, Sue cashed a
check.
Needing some money to buy a book, Sue cashed a check.
Because she had seen that movie before, she didnt want to go
again.
Having seen that movie before, she didnt want to go again.
Exercise: Reduce (contract) the underlined part of the following sentences.
1) After I read the chapter four times, I finally understood the author’s
theory.
2) As I had plenty of time to spare, I had a good look round the town.
3) Since Tom came here, he has learned a lot of English.
4) When Tom saw his wife and child get off the airplane, he broke
into a big smile.
5) Because we were enjoying the cool evening breeze and listening to
the sounds of nature, we lost track of time.
6) Jennifer looked in the rearview mirror before she drove onto the
main road.
7) When Sam reread the figures, he found that he had made a mistake.
ORGANIC FOOD 57
8) Before he became vice-president of marketing and sales, Peter
McKay worked as a sales representative.
9) Since I had been out all day, I was quite happy to stay in for the
evening.
10) I have changed my job since I last wrote to you.
11) The Browns have experienced many changes in their lifestyle since
they adopted twins.
12) When Tina crossed the marathon finish line, she fell in exhaustion.
13) Because he loved her so much, he forgave her for everything.
14) He bowed his head when he met the King.
15) While I was living in Cambodia last year, I learned many things
about Cambodian customs.
16) You should always read a contract before you sign your name.
17) After he finished breakfast, he left the house and went to his office.
18) Because she is a vegetarian, she does not eat meat.
19) Mrs. Alexander nearly fainted when she learned that she had won
the lottery.
20) While Joe was driving to work yesterday, he had an accident.
58 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
9
GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOOD
READING COMPREHENSION
5
10
A genetically modified food is a food product containing some quantity
of any genetically modified organism as an ingredient.
Although “biotechnology” and “genetic modification” commonly are
used interchangeably, genetic modification is a special set of
technologies that alter the genetic makeup of such living organisms as
animals, plants, or bacteria. Biotechnology, a more general term, refers
to using living organisms or their components, such as enzymes, to
make products that include wine, cheese, beer, and yogurt. Combining
genes from different organisms is known as recombinant DNA
technology, and the resulting organism is said to be “genetically
modified,” “genetically engineered,” or “transgenic.” Genetically
modified products (current or in the pipeline) include medicines and
vaccines, foods and food ingredients, feeds, and fibers.
Extraction from a cell
GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOOD 59
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
DNA Structure
Locating genes for important traits – such as those conferring insect
resistance or desired nutrients – is one of the most limiting steps in the
process. However, genome sequencing and discovery programs for
hundreds of different organisms are generating detailed maps along with
data-analyzing technologies to understand and use them.
Transgenic crops are grown commercially or in field trials in over 40
countries and on 6 continents. In 2000, about 109.2 million acres
(442,000 km²) were planted with transgenic crops, the principal ones
being herbicide- and insecticide-resistant soybeans, corn, cotton, and
canola. Other crops grown commercially or field-tested are a sweet
potato resistant to a virus that could destroy most of the African harvest,
rice with increased iron and vitamins that may alleviate chronic
malnutrition in Asian countries, and a variety of plants able to survive
weather extremes.
On the horizon are bananas that produce human vaccines against
infectious diseases such as hepatitis B; fish that mature more quickly;
fruit and nut trees that yield years earlier, and plants that produce new
plastics with unique properties.
In 2000, countries that grew 99% of the global transgenic crops were the
United States (68%), Argentina (23%), Canada (7%), and China (1%).
Although growth is expected to plateau in industrialized countries, it is
increasing in developing countries. The next decade will see exponential
progress in genetically modified product development as researchers
gain increasing and unprecedented access to genomic resources that are
applicable to organisms beyond the scope of individual projects.
Technologies for genetically modifying foods offer dramatic promise for
meeting some areas of greatest challenge for the 21st century. Like all
new technologies, they also pose some risks, both known and unknown.
Controversies surrounding genetically modified foods and crops
commonly focus on human and environmental safety, labeling and
consumer choice, intellectual property rights, ethics, food security,
poverty reduction, and environmental conservation.
60 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
Genetically Modified Products: Benefits and Controversies
Benefits
· Crops
o Enhanced taste and quality
o Reduced maturation time
o Increased nutrients, yields, and stress tolerance
o Improved resistance to disease, pests, and herbicides
o New products and growing techniques
· Animals
o Increased resistance, productivity, hardiness, and feed efficiency
o Better yields of meat, eggs, and milk
o Improved animal health and diagnostic methods
· Environment
o “Friendly” bioherbicides and bioinsecticides
o Conservation of soil, water, and energy
o Bioprocessing for forestry products
o Better natural waste management
o More efficient processing
· Society
o Increased food security for growing populations
Controversies
· Safety
o Potential human health impact: allergens, transfer of antibiotic
resistance markers, unknown effects
o Potential environmental impact: unintended transfer of transgenes
through cross-pollination, unknown effects on other organisms (e.g.
soil microbes), and loss of flora and fauna biodiversity
· Access and Intellectual Property
o Domination of world food production by a few companies
o Increasing dependence on Industrialized nations by developing
countries
o Biopiracy – foreign exploitation of natural resources
· Ethics
o Violation of natural organisms' intrinsic values
o Tampering with nature by mixing genes among species
o Objections to consuming animal genes in plants and vice versa
o Stress for animal
· Labeling
o Not mandatory in some countries (e.g. United States)
o Mixing GM crops with non-GM confounds labeling attempts
· Society
o New advances may be skewed to interests of rich countries
Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.
1) What is a genetically modified food?
2) What is biotechnology?
3) Give some examples of genetically modified products.
4) What do you think the greatest benefits of genetically modified
food are?
5) What are some controversies surrounding genetically modified
foods?
GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOOD 61
True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.
1) _____ Recombinant DNA technology refers to the combination
of genes from different organisms.
2) _____ Wheat with increased iron and vitamins may alleviate
chronic malnutrition in Asian countries.
3) _____ We have known all the risks posed by technologies for
genetically modifying foods.
4) _____ Genetically modified bananas can produce human
vaccines against infectious diseases.
5) _____ Genetically modified plants can produce new plastics with
unique properties.
VOCABULARY
Fill in these statements with the words in the box.
makeup enzyme exponential mandatory biotechnology
genome intrinsic crops genetically allergen
1) If a plant or animal is …………… engineered, some of its genes
have been changed artificially.
2) Genetic modification is a special set of technologies that alter the
genetic …………… of such living organisms as animals, plants, or
bacteria.
3) …………… is the use of living cells and bacteria in industrial and
scientific processes.
4) There has been an …………… increase in world population this
century.
5) The human …………… project is an attempt to produce a map of
all the genetic information in the human body.
6) An …………… is a substance which can cause an allergy, but
which is harmless to most people.
7) It is immoral to treat animals as if they had no …………… value.
8) Athletes must undergo a …………… drugs test before competing
in the championship.
9) The main …………… grown for export are coffee and rice.
10) An …………… in the saliva of the mouth starts the process of
breaking down the food.
62 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
WORD STUDY
A. WORD FORMS
Exercise: Study the list of verbs, nouns, and adjectives. Notice how they are
related to each other. Then choose the correct word for each
sentence. Use a word from line 1 in sentence 1, and so on. Make the
nouns plural if necessary.
verb noun adjective
1) compete competition competitive
2) refrigerate refrigerator refrigerated
3) announce announcement
4) poison poison poison / poisonous
5) unite union united
6) decide decision decisive
7) store storage storage
8) — chemical / chemist chemical / chemist
9) embarrass embarrassment embarrassed
10) add addition additional
1) Tom is very ……………………… He enters every competition he
can, and he always wants to be the winner.
2) You cannot keep milk in the cupboard. You must …………………
it, or it will turn bad.
3) The president of the international student organization made an
important …………...……… at the meeting last night. She
announced that there will be a big party next Saturday.
4) Some plants are suitable for humans to eat. Other plants are
………………………… . If you eat them, you might die.
5) UN stands for the …………………………Nations.
6) Kiki made an important …………………………. She decided to
stay in the United States and go to college. After college, she will
return to her country to work.
7) If you don’t have enough room to keep your bicycle in your
apartment, you can ………………………… it in the basement.
8) Scientists say tears contain ………………………… that your body
needs to get rid of. They say it’s good to cry sometimes.
9) I hope the teacher doesn’t ask me a question in class today, because
I didn’t finish my homework last night. If she calls on me, I will be
very ………………………… because I won’t know the answer.
10) This lemonade is not sweet enough. If we …………………………
a little more sugar, it will taste better.
GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOOD 63
B. -Y, -ITY, -TY
In English you can often change an adjective to a noun by adding -y, -
ty, or -ity. Look at the adjectives in the chart. Add the correct suffix to
each one to make a noun.
-y -ity
adjective noun adjective noun
difficult ………………
-ty
certain
safe
special
………………
………………
………………
ability
electric
equal
popular
human
similar
ability
………………
………………
………………
………………
………………
Exercise: Choose the best noun from the chart for each sentence.
1) Amnesty International is trying to improve the lives of all ………..
This organization tries to make life better and more peaceful for all
people in the world.
2) In many countries, people of different races and religions do not
have equal rights in society. People are still fighting for …………..
3) Factories should provide better equipment for the workers to help
improve ………………… and prevent accidents.
4) Third World countries have ……………………… providing food,
housing and medical care for all people. It is difficult for these
countries because their governments have very little money.
5) My brother studied engineering at the university. He has a
……………………… in chemical engineering because he studied
in a special program for it,
6) Name one ……………………… between life in Canada and life in
the United States. These two countries are not very different.
7) If you study English for several years, you will be able to speak it
well. This ………………… can help you find a good job.
C. -Y
In English we can add -y to some nouns to make adjectives.
Look at the example:
noun + -y = adjective
syrup + -y = syrupy
The mixture is heated until it becomes a syrupy liquid.
Spelling notes:
1) If a noun ends in silent e, drop the e before adding y.
2) If a noun ends in consonant-vowel-consonant and is a onesyllable
word, double the final consonant before adding y.
64 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
Here are two examples:
lace (drop the e) lacy
fun (double the n) funny
Exercise: Add -y to each noun to make an adjective. Remember to follow the
spelling rules. Then choose the best adjective for each sentence.
sun …………………… snow ……………………
wind …………………… cloud ……………………
juice …………………… ice ……………………
rain ……………………
1) Last night the wind started to blow and it started to rain. It never
stopped. It has been ………………… and …………………… all
day today, too.
2) In summer, the weather is usually warm and …………………….
In fact, the sun shines almost every day.
3) Be careful if you drive a car in winter. Sometimes water on the
roads ‘freezes and the roads become ………………………
4) Oranges and lemons are two fruits with lots of juice. A banana is
different. It is not ……………………
5) Sometimes in winter it is difficult to see far away because the sky
is full of snow and covered with clouds. But I like ………………
and ………………… days because everything looks very white
and peaceful.
D. -EVER
Several words in English end in the suffix -ever. Look at these
words and their meanings. Then choose the best word for each
sentence.
whatever = anything whenever = any time
whoever = anyone wherever = any place
1) We can leave the party ……………………… you like. I don’t care
what time we go home.
2) I lent my book to someone in class, but I forget who. Would
……………………… has it please return it to me?
3) Tonight is my birthday, and I am taking you out to dinner. You can
order …………………… you like. I’m having spaghetti.
4) You can go ……………………… you like on vacation if you have
a lot of money. Some places are very expensive.
GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOOD 65
STRUCTURE STUDY
REDUCTION ADVERBIAL CLAUSES (2)
· Past participle in place of the passive:
As he was loved by all who knew him, he devoted his life to others.
Loved by all who knew him, he devoted his life to others.
Although it was intended to be a nice surprise, the party was not
whet I wanted at all.
Although intended to be a nice surprise, the party was not what I
wanted at all.
If I am accepted for the job, Ill have to start at the beginning of
next month.
If accepted for the job, Ill have to start at the beginning of next
month.
After the manuscript had been lost for many years, it suddenly
turned up again.
Lost for many year, the manuscript suddenly turned up again.
Once the brain is deprived of oxygen, it dies.
Once deprived of the oxygen, the brain dies.
· Being + past participle following after, before, when, since, while,
on, by:
After it was cleaned the bike looked as good as new.
After being cleaned, the bike looked as good as new.
Since the government was elected, it has had one crisis after
another.
Since being elected, the government has had one crisis after
another.
He did military service before he was admitted into university.
He did military service before being admitted into university.
When he was being questioned, he suddenly burst into tears.
When being questioned, he suddenly burst into tears.
The message got across to people because it was repeated over
and over again.
The message got across to people by being repeated over and over
again.
66 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
Exercise: Reduce (contract) the underlined part of the following sentences.
1) Because I was exhausted through lack of sleep, I fell asleep at my
desk.
2) Although it was written many years ago, the book is still relevant
today.
3) Since I was promoted, I’ve had no time to go out.
4) After he was released from prison, Andy could not find a job
anywhere.
5) When he was caught, he confessed everything.
6) When it is seen from the outside, the building looks a mess, but it is
lovely inside.
7) If we are elected, we will increase the value of pensions.
8) Although he was ridiculed by everybody, he continued to pursue
his bizarre projects.
9) Unless it is destroyed, this material could have damaging
consequences.
10) Jennifer had been shoplifting for many years before she was found
out.
11) When British people are introduced, they often shake hands.
12) After the concert had been delayed for an hour, it started at nine
o’clock.
13) When we were informed the flight would be delayed, we made
other arrangements.
14) Although it was built years ago, it was in good condition.
15) If you are accepted for the job, you will be informed soon.
16) When the poem is read aloud it is very effective.
17) If the picture is seen from this angle, it looks rather good.
18) Because he has been promised a reward, he hopes he’ll get one.
19) Unless it is changed, this law will make life difficult for farmers.
20) When it was viewed from a distance, the island of Nepenthe looked
like a cloud.
FOOD INDUSTRY 67
10
FOOD INDUSTRY
READING COMPREHENSION
5
10
15
20
The food industry comprises all business operations that are involved in
producing a raw food material, processing it, and distributing it to sales
outlets. The entire complex of the industry includes: farms and ranches;
producers of raw materials, such as phosphates, for agricultural use;
water-supply systems; food-processing plants; manufacturers of
packaging materials and food-processing and transportation equipment;
transportation systems; and retail stores and food-service operations
such as restaurants, institutional feeding commissaries, and vendingmachine
services.
HISTORY OF THE INDUSTRY
The organized trading and transport of salt, spices, grain, olive oil,
fermented beverages, and other foods have probably been practiced
almost since the time of the first agricultural surpluses. Inventories of
livestock and foodstuffs are among the first written records. However,
until modern preservation methods were developed, the kinds of foods
that could be traded were limited to those which did not spoil quickly.
Most food-processing operations seem to have begun as extensions of
kitchen preparation techniques, scaled up to furnish enough surplus
product to be bartered or sold outside the household. Enlargement of a
business entailed simply building more or larger processing equipment –
oil presses, baking ovens, or wine vats. Gradual improvements in design
were made to increase yields or improve quality. This was the general
pattern until the Industrial Revolution, when major qualitative changes
began to be made in food processing and distribution operations. Not
68 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
25
30
35
40
only were factories greatly enlarged and much of the manual labor
replaced by machinery, but entirely new principles of processing, such
as canning and spray drying, were invented. Channels of distribution
became much more complex and extended, and special techniques for
retaining quality were used, for example, shipping by means of
refrigerated railroad cars. The present-day industry slowly took shape as
it responded to ever-growing agricultural surpluses, to advances in
transportation, and to the enormous changes made possible by the
growth in processing technologies.
Beef calves are often sent to feedlots.
DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS
Farmers, ranchers, other producers of agricultural raw materials, and
feedlot operators usually sell their output to collection points, such as
grain terminals or stockyards. The terminal or stockyard supplies the
processing companies, which select needed raw materials from the
available stock and process them either into finished foodstuffs – cuts of
meat, for example – or into food ingredients, such as flour.
Flow of goods in the food industry
From the final processor, finished food products are moved by truck or
FOOD INDUSTRY 69
45
50
55
60
rail to warehouses, usually located near a city. Most modern warehouses
have storage areas for frozen and refrigerated food and are equipped to
control temperature and humidity within a narrow range. Warehouses
can assemble full truckloads of products originating from many different
suppliers for shipment to one large retailer or to a number of smaller
outlets in a given region, allowing a great reduction in unit
transportation costs as compared to shipping a small quantity of one
item directly from the producer to the retailer. If the retail outlet is large
enough to accept complete truckloads directly from the manufacturer,
direct shipments from the factory are sometimes made.
Processors of perishable foods (dairies, ice-cream manufacturers,
wholesale bread bakeries, and meat-packers) usually maintain their own
fleets of trucks for carrying fresh products directly to their retailer
customers. Truck drivers from bakeries and dairies may also service
retail outlets by rotating stock and picking up stale products and
returning them to the factory. Restaurants and institutional commissaries
purchase staples and nonperishable foods from the warehouses of
specialized distributors, but they also receive direct shipment from
dairies, bakeries, and meat-packers.
Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.
1) What does the food industry consist of?
2) When did the organized trading and transport of salt, spices, grain,
olive oil, fermented beverages, and other foods begin?
3) What do the processing companies terminals or stockyards supply
do?
4) When can direct shipments from the factory to retailers be made?
5) Where do restaurants and institutional commissaries buy staples
and nonperishable foods?
True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.
1) _____ Most food-processing operations seem to have begun as
extensions of kitchen preparation techniques.
2) _____ Farmers, ranchers, and other producers of agricultural raw
materials seldom sell their output to grain terminals or
stockyards.
3) _____ In the past, the kinds of foods that could be traded were
limited to those which did not spoil quickly.
4) _____ Processors of perishable foods usually hire fleets of trucks
for carrying fresh products directly to their retailer
customers.
5) _____ Restaurants receive direct shipment from dairies, bakeries,
and meat-packers.
70 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
VOCABULARY
Fill in these statements with the words in the box.
ferment stale vats commissary stockyard
dairy entails raw vending machine surplus
1) Sushi is a Japanese dish made from …………… fish.
2) You make wine by leaving grape juice to …………… until all the
sugar has turned to alcohol.
3) Farmers are feeding all their …………… wheat to pigs.
4) A …………… is a place where farm animals are kept for a short
time before they are sold at a market.
5) The wines used to be made in deep wooden …………….
6) While we were camping we bought our milk from a nearby farm
…………….
7) Coffee goes …………… within a couple of weeks so it is best to
buy it in small quantities.
8) A …………… is a machine from which you can buy small items
such as cigarettes, drinks and sweets by putting coins into it.
9) A …………… is a shop which supplies food and goods, especially
to people in the army or in prison.
10) Enlargement of a food business simply …………… building more
or larger processing equipment.
WORD STUDY
A. WORD FORMS
Study the words in the list. Notice how they are related to each
other. Then choose the best word to complete each sentence. Use a
word from line 1 in sentence 1, and so on.
Verb Noun Adjective
1) die death dead
2) decorate decoration —
3) — cruelty cruel
4) describe description descriptive
5) breathe breath —
6) compute computer / computation —
7) reserve reservation —
8) revolt revolution revolutionary
9) know knowledge —
10) connect connection connected
FOOD INDUSTRY 71
1) President John F. Kennedy is ……………… He ………………….
in 1963. Thousands of people went to his funeral.
2) In Canada and the United States, many people ……………………
a tree with lights and colorful decorations for Christmas.
3) Amnesty International tries to stop …………………… to prisoners
in all countries. In many places, prisoners have terrible lives of
pain and suffering.
4) For your homework tonight, write a ……………… of your home
town. Tell how it looks, where you like to go, and why you like it.
5) When people swim under water, they must hold their
………………… Fish can breathe under water, but humans cannot.
6) If you have a small calculator, you can ………………… your
grocery bill while you are in the store.
7) Next month Kei is going on a trip to New York. He already made
his plane …………………, so he is very excited.
8) Thirteen colonies participated in the …………………… war
against England. They became the United States of America.
9) The more you study, the more your …………………… increases.
10) Maria is going to Julie’s house tonight to help her
……………………… her new computer. Julie doesn’t know how
to do it by herself.
B. WORD FORMS
This exercise is just for fun, and it is difficult. See if you can figure
out the meanings of these words and use the correct word in each
sentence.
commercialized multiplicity oversimplification undereducated
discouraged non-warlike programmer unrecognizable
1) Paula dressed in strange clothes and put a lot of makeup on her
face for a party. She was completely ……………………… No one
knew who she was!
2) One student said that his native country nationalized the oil
companies because people were stealing the oil. This is only part of
what really happened. This explanation is an ………………………
of the situation.
3) There is a ………………………… of problems in Third World
countries, such as poor living conditions, few jobs, and very little
medical care for people.
4) Another problem in Third World countries is that most of the
people are ……………………… because they quit school at an
early age to get jobs.
5) Carl is a computer ………………………… for a large company.
He writes programs for businesses and industries.
6) Christmas has become very ………………………… in the United
States. Marketing experts make a lot of money because of this.
7) Don’t be ………………………… if you can’t do this exercise.
The words are very difficult!
72 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
C. SHIP, -OUS, -LIKE
In English, we can add the suffix -ous and -like to some nouns to make
adjectives. Words that end in -ous mean “full of something.” Here is an
example:
Our classroom is very spacious. (full of space)
Words that end in -like mean “similar to,” or “like.” Here is an example:
The painting that Simon made is very lifelike.
Spelling Note: If a noun ends in silent e, drop the e before adding the
suffix -ous. There are no spelling changes when you add the suffix -like.
Exercise: Add the correct suffix to each noun in the chart.
-ous -like
noun adjective noun adjective
joy ……………………… life ………………………
fame ……………………… war ………………………
danger ……………………… child ………………………
poison ………………………
Now choose the best adjective to complete each sentence.
1) Some plants are very …………………… to eat. In fact, if you eat
a ……………………… plant, you could become sick or even die.
2) Holidays are usually ………………………… times. People don’t
have to work, and everyone celebrates and is happy.
3) Albert Einstein is a ………………………… scientist. Most people
in the world know who he was.
4) Eskimo carvings are very …………………………. They look
exactly like living animals.
5) In the 1930s Germany began to take …………………………
actions. Then in 1939 it attacked Poland and started a war.
6) When an adult does something that a child might do, people say he
or she is ………………………….
STRUCTURE STUDY
SUBJECT-AUXILIARY INVERSION
If a negative adverb or adverbial expression is put at the beginning of a
clause for emphasis, it is usually followed by auxiliary verb + subject.
Under no circumstances can we cash checks.
Not until he received her letter did he fully understand the depth of
her feelings.
Hardly had I arrived when trouble started.
FOOD INDUSTRY 73
Not only did we lose our money, but we were nearly killed.
Seldom have I seen such a remarkable creature.
No sooner had I closed the door than somebody knocked.
Exercise: Rewrite these sentences beginning with the words in brackets.
1) I had hardly closed my eyes when the phone rang. (Hardly …)
2) We no sooner sat down in the train than I felt sick. (No sooner …)
3) There has never been so much protest against land mines.
(Never …)
4) I realized what had happened only later. (Only later …)
5) You shouldn’t answer the door when I’m out in any circumstances.
(In no circumstances …)
6) You shouldn’t sign the document on any account.
(On no account …)
7) I have never seen such a big tree. (Never …)
8) We are not taking applications for that position any longer.
(No longer …)
9) You can hardly ever see such a spectacular sight. (Hardly ever …)
10) Billy does not only sings, but he also plays the piano and writes his
own songs. (Not only …)
In formal styles, if in an if-clause can be dropped and an auxiliary verb
put before the subject. This happens with were, had and should.
Were she my daughter, (If she were my daughter, )
Had I realized what you intended, (If I had realized )
Should you change your mind, (If you should change )
Had we not changed our reservations, (If we hadnt changed )
Exercise: Rewrite these sentences beginning with the words in brackets.
1) If the boss were to come in now, we would be in real trouble.
(Were …)
2) If he should be late, we’ll have to start without him. (Should …)
3) If you had worked harder, you would have passed your exam.
(Had …)
4) If I were rich, I would spend all my time traveling. (Were …)
5) If my mother had been alive, she would have been 80 next year.
(Had …)
6) If you should run into Peter, tell him he owes me a letter.
(Should …)
7) If I hadn’t been so tired, I might have realized what was happening.
(Had …)
8) If her nose were a little shorter, she would be quite pretty.
(Were …)
9) If you should happen to finish early, give me a ring. (Should …)
10) If Jane hadn’t helped me, I would have been in bad trouble.
(Had …)
74 ENGLISH FOR NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCES
CONTENTS
Unit
Reading
Vocabulary
Word Study Language Focus Page
1 Food and Nutrition
- The Prefixes UN-, IM-, IN-,
DIS-, NON-
- The Suffixes -MENT, -ER
- The Suffixes -TH, -GTH
- The Passive 01
2 Essential Nutrients
- Compound Words
- The Suffixes -AL, -ABLE, -
FUL
- The Suffix -EN
- The Passive
(cont.)
07
3 Food Groups
- The Prefix RE-
- Word Forms: Nouns (1)
- Word Forms: Nouns (2)
- The Causative 13
4 Food Preservation
- Word Form: Noun Endings
- The Suffix -LESS
- Word Forms: Nouns
- Relative Clauses 20
5 Cooking
- The Prefix OVER-
- The Suffix -LY
- Word Forms: Other Words
with -LY
- Defining and
Non-defining
Relative Clauses
28
6 Human Diet
- Word Forms: Adjectives (1)
- Word Forms: Adjectives (2)
- Word Forms
- Reduction of
Relative Clauses
35
7 Food Poisoning
- The Suffix -IZE
- The Suffix -IVE
- Word Forms
- Adverbial
Clauses
42
8 Organic Food
- The Suffix -SHIP
- The Prefix EN-
- The Suffix -AGE
- The Suffix -IST
- Reduction of
Adverbial
Clauses (1)
50
9
Genetically
Modified Food
- Word Forms
- The Suffixes -Y, -ITY, -TY
- The Suffix -Y
- The Suffix -EVER
- Reduction of
Adverbial
Clauses (2)
58
10 Food Industry
- Word Forms (1)
- Word Forms (2)
- The Suffixes -OUS, -LIKE
- Subject-
Auxiliary
Inversion
67
Contents 74
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