1 Early.At the height of the most recent Ice Age about 35000 years ago much of the world"s water was locked up in vast continental ice sheets.. A land bridge as much as 1,500 kilometers wide connected Asia and North America. . By 12,000 years ago, humans were living throughout much of the Western Hemisphere. .

The first Americans crossed the land bridge from Asia and were believed to have stayed in what is now Alaska for thousands of years. . They then moved south into the land that was to become the United States. . They settled along the Pacific Ocean in the Northwest, in the mountains and deserts of the Southwest, and along the Mississippi River in the Middle West.

These early groups are known as Hohokam, Adenans, Hopewellians, and Anasazi. . They built villages and grew crops. Some built mounds of earth in the shapes of pyramids, birds, or serpents.. Their life was closely tied to the land, and their society was clan-oriented and communal. Elements of the natural world played an essential part in their spiritual beliefs. Their culture was primarily oral, although some developed a type of hieroglyphics to preserve certain texts. Evidence shows that there was a good deal of trade among the groups but also that some of their relations were hostile.

For reasons not yet completely understood, these early groups disappeared over time and were replaced by other groups of Native Americans, including Hopi and Zuni, who flourished. By the time Europeans reached what is now the United States, about two million native people, maybe more, lived here.

The first Europeans to arrive in North America - at least the first for whom there is solid evidence - were Norse. They traveled west from Greenland, where Erik the Red had founded a settlement around the year 985. In 1001, his son Leif is thought to have explored the northeast coast of what is now Canada. Ruins of Norse houses dating from that time have been discovered at L'Anse-aux-Meadows in northern Newfoundland.

It would be almost 500 more years before other Europeans reached North America and another 100 years after that before permanent settlements were established. The first explorers were searching for a sea passage to Asia. Others - chiefly British, Dutch, French, and Spanish - came later to claim the lands and riches of what they called the "New World.

The first and most famous of these explorers was Christopher Columbus of Genoa. His trips were financed by Queen Isabella of Spain. Columbus landed on islands in the Caribbean Sea in 1492, but he never saw the mainland of the future United States. John Cabot of Venice came five years later on a mission for the king of England. His journey was quickly forgotten, but it provided the basis for British claims to North America.

The 1500s were the age of Spanish exploration in the Americas. Juan Ponce de León landed in what is now Florida in 1513. Hernando De Soto reached Florida in 1539 and continued as far as the Mississippi River. In 1540, Francisco Vázquez de Coronado set out north from Mexico, which Spain had conquered in 1522, in search of the mythical Seven Cities of Cibola. He never found them, but his travels took him as far as the Grand Canyon in Arizona, as well as into the Great Plains.

While the Spanish were pushing up from the south, the northern portion of the present-day United States was slowly being revealed through the journeys of other Europeans. These included Giovanni da Verrazano, Jacques Cartier, and Amerigo Vespucci, for whom the continent - America - would be named.

The first permanent European settlement in what was to become the United States was established by the Spanish in the middle 1500s at St. Augustine in Florida. However, it would not play a part in the formation of the new nation. That story took place in settlements farther north along the Atlantic coast - in Virginia, Massachusetts, New York, and the 10 other areas colonized by a growing tide of immigrants from Europe.

2.COLONIAL PERIOD Most settlers who came to the British colonies in the 1600s were English. Others came from The Netherlands, Sweden, Germany, Fran ce, and later from Scotland and Northern Ireland. Some left their homelands to escape war, political oppression, religious persecution, or a prison sentence. Some left as servants who expected to work their way to freedom. Black Africans were sold into slavery and arrived in shackles.

By 1690, the population was 250,000. Less than 100 years later, it had climbed to 2.5 million.

The settlers had many different reasons for coming to America, and eventually 13 distinct colonies developed here. Differences among the three regional groupings of colonies were even more marked.

The first settlements were built along the Atlantic coast and on the rivers that flowed to the ocean. In the Northeast, settlers found hills covered with trees and soil filled with stones left behind when the Ice Age glaciers melted. Water power was easy to harness, so "New England" - including Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island - developed an economy based on wood products, fishing, shipbuilding, and trade. The middle colonies - including New York and Pennsylvania - had a milder climate and more varied terrain. Both industry and agriculture developed there, and society was more varied and cosmopolitan. In New York, for example, one could find Bohemians, Danes, Dutch, English, French, Germans, Irish, Italians, Norwegians, Poles, Portuguese, Scots, and Swedes. The Southern colonies - Virginia, Georgia, and the Carolinas - had a long growing season and fertile soil, and the economy was primarily agricultural. There were both small farmers and wealthy aristocratic landowners who owned large plantations worked by African slaves.

Relations between settlers and Native Americans, who were called Indians, were an uneasy mix of cooperation and conflict. Certain areas saw trade and some social interaction, but in general, as the new settlements expanded, the Indians were forced to move, often after being defeated in battle.

Settlement of the American colonies was directly sponsored not by the British government, but by private groups. All except Georgia emerged as companies of shareholders or as proprietorships chartered by the king. Some were governed rigidly by company leaders, but in time, all developed a system of . government based on British legal precedent and tradition.

Years of political turmoil in Britain culminated with the Glorious Revolution of 1688-89 that deposed King James II and led to limits on the monarchy and greater freedoms for the people. The American colonies benefited from these changes. Colonial assemblies claimed the right to act as local parliaments. They passed measures that limited the power of royal governors and expanded their own power.

Over the decades that followed, recurring disputes between the governors and assemblies awakened colonists to the increasing divergence between American and British interests. The principles and precedents that emerged from these disputes became the unwritten constitution of the colonies.

At first, the focus was on self-government within a British commonwealth. Only later came the call for independence.

3.Road to Indepence

The principles of liberalism and democracy - the political foundation of the United States - sprang naturally from the process of building a new society on virgin land. Just as naturally, the new nation would see itself as different and exceptional. Europe would view it with apprehension, or hope.

Britain's 13 North American colonies matured during the 1700s. They grew in population, economic strength, and cultural attainment. They were experienced in self-government. Yet it was not until 170 years after the founding of the first permanent settlement at Jamestown, Virginia, that the new United States of America emerged as a nation.

War between Britain and France in the 1750s was fought partly in North America. Britain was victorious and soon initiated policies designed to control and fund its vast empire. These measures imposed greater restraints on the American colonists' way of life.

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 restricted the opening of new lands for settlement. The Sugar Act of 1764 placed taxes on luxury goods, including coffee, silk, and wine, and made it illegal to import rum. The Currency Act of 1764 prohibited the printing of paper money in the colonies. The Quartering Act of 1765 forced colonists to provide food and housing for royal troops. And the Stamp Act of 1765 required the purchase of royal stamps for all legal documents, newspapers, licenses, and leases.

Colonists objected to all these measures, but the Stamp Act sparked the greatest organized resistance. The main issue, in the eyes of a growing number of colonists, was that they were being taxed by a distant legislature in which they could not participate. In October 1765, 27 delegates from nine colonies met in New York to coordinate efforts to get the Stamp Act repealed. They passed resolutions asserting the individual colonies' right to impose their own taxes.

Self-government produced local political leaders, and these were the men who worked together to defeat what they considered to be oppressive acts of Parliament. After they succeeded, their coordinated campaign against Britain ended. During the next several years, however, a small number of radicals tried to keep the controversy alive. Their goal was not accommodation, but independence.

Samuel Adams of Massachusetts was the most effective. He wrote newspaper articles and made speeches appealing to the colonists' democratic instincts. He helped organize committees throughout the colonies that became the basis of a revolutionary movement. By 1773, the movement had attracted colonial traders who were angry with British attempts to regulate the tea trade. In December, a group of men sneaked on to three British ships in Boston harbor and dumped their cargo of tea overboard.

To punish Massachusetts for the vandalism, the British Parliament closed the port of Boston and restricted local authority. The new measures, dubbed the Intolerable Acts, backfired. Rather than isolate one colony, they rallied the others. All the colonies except Georgia sent representatives to Philadelphia in September 1774 to discuss their "present unhappy state. It was the first Continental Congress.

Colonists felt a growing sense of frustration and anger over British encroachment on their rights. Yet by no means was there unanimity of thought on what should be done. Loyalists wanted to remain subjects of the king. Moderates favored compromise to produce a more acceptable relationship with the British government. And revolutionaries wanted complete independence. They began stockpiling weapons and mobilizing forces waiting for the day when they would have to fight for it.

4.Civil War NÙi chi¿n (1861-1865)

cuÙc tranh ch¥p quân sñ giïa Chính phç Liên bang và 11 tiÃu bang

HYPERLINK "http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C3%ADa_nam" \o "Phía nam" phía nam HYPERLINK "http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoa_K%E1%BB%B3" \o "Hoa Kó" Hoa Kó

tiÃu bang miÁn nam muÑn ti¿p tåc phát triÃn ch¿ Ù HYPERLINK "http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B4_l%E1%BB%87" \o "Nô lÇ" nô lÇ và không °ãc chính phç ch¥p thu­n, các ¡i diÇn miÁn nam quy¿t Ënh thành l­p chính phç riêng. HYPERLINK "http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%E1%BB%95ng_th%E1%BB%91ng_Hoa_K%E1%BB%B3" \o "TÕng thÑng Hoa Kó" TÕng thÑng Hoa Kó HYPERLINK "http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" \o "Abraham Lincoln" Abraham Lincoln và HYPERLINK "http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A3ng_C%E1%BB%99ng_H%C3%B2a_Hoa_K%E1%BB%B3" \o "£ng CÙng Hòa Hoa Kó" £ng CÙng Hòa të chÑi công nh­n

phía nam (confederate - Liên bang miÁn Nam) b§u cho mình mÙt tÕng thÑng là HYPERLINK "http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" \o "Jefferson Davis" Jefferson Davis và khßi phát cuÙc nÙi chi¿n vào ngày HYPERLINK "http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_th%C3%A1ng_4" \o "12 tháng 4" 12 tháng 4 nm HYPERLINK "http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/1861" \o "1861" 1861 b±ng cuÙc t¥n công cn cé quân sñ cça quân Liên Bang t¡i Ón Sumter, HYPERLINK "http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Carolina" \o "South Carolina" South Carolina. CuÙc phân tranh Nam-B¯c kéo dài 4 nm và ch¥m dét khi quân miÁn Nam §u hàng nm HYPERLINK "http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/1865" \o "1865" 1865.

and Post War Reconstruction NÙi chi¿n và Tái thi¿t sau chi¿n tranh

North and South went to war in April 1861. The Southern states had claimed the right to secede and had formed their own Confederacy. Their forces fired the first shots. The Northern states, under the leadership of President Lincoln, were determined to stop the rebellion and preserve the Union.

The North had more than twice as many states and twice as many people. It had abundant facilities for producing war supplies, as well as a superior railway network. The South had more experienced military leaders and had the advantage of fighting mostly on its own territory.

For four years, ground battles involving tens of thousands of soldiers and horses were fought in Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Georgia. Naval battles were fought off the Atlantic coast and on the Mississippi River. In that area, Union forces won an almost uninterrupted series of victories. In Virginia, by contrast, they met defeat after defeat in their attempts to capture Richmond, the Confederate capital.

President Abraham Lincoln (center), at a Union Army encampment in October 1862, following the battle of Antietam.

The single bloodiest day of the war was on September 17, 1862, when the two armies met at Antietam Creek near Sharpsburg, Maryland. Confederate troops led by General Robert E. Lee failed to force back the Union troops led by General George McClellan, and Lee escaped with his army intact. McClellan was fired. Although the battle was inconclusive in military terms, its consequences were enormous. Britain and France had been planning to recognize the Confederacy. They delayed their decisions, and the South never received the aid it desperately needed.

Several months later, President Lincoln issued a preliminary Emancipation Proclamation. It freed all slaves living in Confederate states and authorized the recruitment of African Americans into the Union army. Now the North was no longer fighting just to preserve the Union. It was fighting to end slavery.

Union forces gained momentum in 1863 with victories at Vicksburg in Mississippi and Gettysburg in Pennsylvania, and then with the scorched-earth policy of General William T. Sherman as he marched across Georgia and into South Carolina in 1864. By April 1865, huge Union armies under the command of General Ulysses S. Grant had surrounded Robert E. Lee in Virginia. Lee surrendered, and the American Civil War was over. h¿t civill war

*The terms of surrender were generous. "The rebels are our countrymen again," Grant reminded his troops. In Washington, President Lincoln was ready to begin the process of reconciliation. He never got the chance. Less than a week after the South surrendered, he was assassinated by a Southerner embittered by the defeat. The task would fall to Lincoln's vice president, Andrew Johnson, a Southerner who favored quick and easy "Reconstruction.

Johnson issued pardons that restored the political rights of many Southerners. By the end of 1865, almost all former Confederate states had held conventions to repeal the acts of secession and to abolish slavery, but all except Tennessee refused to ratify a constitutional amendment giving full citizenship to African Americans. As a result, Republicans in Congress decided to implement their own version of Reconstruction. They enacted punitive measures against former rebels and prevented former Confederate leaders from holding office. They divided the South into five military districts administered by Union generals. They denied voting rights to anyone who refused to take a loyalty oath to the Union. And they strongly supported the rights of African Americans. President Johnson tried to block many of these policies and was impeached. The vote fell short, and he remained in office, but Congress would continue to wield enormous power for the next 30 years.

The divisions and hatreds that had led to the Civil War did not disappear after the fighting stopped. Các ¡n vË và hatreds ã d«n ¿n cuÙc nÙi chi¿n ã không bi¿n m¥t sau khi ngëng chi¿n ¥u. As Southern whites regained political power, Southern blacks suffered. Khi miÁn Nam da tr¯ng giành l¡i quyÁn lñc chính trË, Nam bË ng°Ýi da en. They had gained their freedom but were prevented from enjoying it by local laws denying them access to many public facilities. HÍ ã có °ãc sñ tñ do cça hÍ, nh°ng ã °ãc ngn ngëa të th°ßng théc nó b±ng lu­t pháp Ëa ph°¡ng të chÑi cho hÍ ti¿p c­n vÛi nhiÁu ph°¡ng tiÇn công cÙng. They had gained the right to vote but were intimidated at the polls. HÍ ã giành °ãc quyÁn bÏ phi¿u, nh°ng bË e dÍa t¡i các cuÙc thm dò. The South had become segregated and would remain so for 100 years. MiÁn Nam ã trß thành tách biÇt và s½ v«n nh° v­y cho 100 nm. The postwar Reconstruction process had begun with high ideals but collapsed into a sinkhole of corruption and racism. Các quá trình tái thi¿t sau chi¿n tranh ã b¯t §u vÛi nhïng lý t°ßng cao nh°ng bË såp Õ vào mÙt sinkhole cça tham nhing và phân biÇt chçng tÙc. Its failure deferred the struggle for equality for African Americans until the 20th century, when it would become a national, not just a Southern, issue. Sñ th¥t b¡i cça nó bË trì hoãn cuÙc ¥u tranh cho sñ bình ³ng cho ng°Ýi Mù gÑc Châu Phi cho ¿n th¿ k÷ 20, khi nó s½ trß thành mÙt quÑc gia không chÉ là mÙt v¥n Á miÁn Nam.

Growth and Transformation

Tng tr°ßng và chuyÃn Õi

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Sitting Bull, Sioux chief who defeated General George Custer at the Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876. Sitting Bull, Sioux tr°ßng ng°Ýi ánh b¡i t°Ûng George Custer ß tr­n Little Bighorn nm 1876.

The United States came of age in the decades following the Civil War. Hoa Kó ¿n tuÕi tác trong nhïng th­p k÷ sau chi¿n tranh dân sñ. The frontier gradually vanished; a rural republic became an urban nation. Biên giÛi d§n d§n bi¿n m¥t; mÙt n°Ûc cÙng hòa nông thôn ã trß thành mÙt quÑc gia ô thË. Great factories, steel mills, and transcontinental railroads were built. Nhà máy s£n xu¥t lÛn, các nhà máy thép, và °Ýng s¯t xuyên låc °ãc xây dñng. Cities grew quickly. Thành phÑ ã tng tr°ßng nhanh chóng. And millions of people arrived from other countries to begin new lives in a land of opportunity. Và hàng triÇu ng°Ýi ¿n të các quÑc gia khác à b¯t §u cuÙc sÑng mÛi ß mÙt vùng ¥t cça c¡ hÙi.

Inventors harnessed the power of science. Nhà phát minh khai thác séc m¡nh cça khoa hÍc. Alexander Graham Bell developed the telephone. Alexander Graham Bell phát triÃn iÇn tho¡i. Thomas Edison produced the light bulb and, with George Eastman, the moving picture. Thomas Edison s£n xu¥t bóng èn và vÛi George Eastman, hình £nh chuyÃn Ùng. Before 1860, the government issued 36,000 patents. Tr°Ûc 1860, chính phç ã ban hành 36.000 b±ng sáng ch¿. In the next 30 years, it issued 440,000. Trong 30 nm ti¿p theo, nó phát hành 440.000.

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Thomas Edison examines film used in the motion picture projector that he invented with George Eastman. Thomas Edison kiÃm tra bÙ phim °ãc sí dång trong máy chi¿u hình £nh chuyÃn Ùng mà ông ã phát minh ra vÛi George Eastman.

It was an era of corporate consolidation, especially in the steel, rail, oil, and telecommunications industries. ó là mÙt k÷ nguyên cça công ty hãp nh¥t, ·c biÇt là thép, °Ýng s¯t, d§u, và các ngành công nghiÇp viÅn thông. Monopolies denied competition in the marketplace, which led to calls for government regulation. Ùc quyÁn të chÑi cuÙc c¡nh tranh trên thË tr°Ýng, d«n tÛi các cuÙc gÍi cho các quy Ënh cça chính phç. A law was passed in 1890 to prevent monopolies from restraining trade, but it was not vigorously enforced at first. MÙt pháp lu­t °ãc thông qua vào nm 1890 Ã ngn ch·n Ùc quyÁn të th°¡ng m¡i c¥m, nh°ng nó ã không °ãc thñc thi m¡nh m½ lúc §u tiên.

Even with the great gains in industry, farming remained America's basic occupation. Ngay c£ vÛi nhïng lãi ích to lÛn trong ngành công nghiÇp, nông nghiÇp v«n là nghÁ nghiÇp c¡ b£n cça Mù. Yet it, too, witnessed enormous changes. Tuy nhiên, nó cing chéng ki¿n nhïng thay Õi r¥t lÛn. Farmland doubled and scientists developed improved seeds. ¥t nông nghiÇp tng g¥p ôi và c£i thiÇn các nhà khoa hÍc phát triÃn h¡t. Machines including mechanical planters, reapers, and threshers took over much of the work that had previously been done by hand. Máy móc - bao gÓm trÓng c¡ khí, reapers, và threshers - ã qua nhiÁu công viÇc mà tr°Ûc ây ã °ãc thñc hiÇn b±ng tay. American farmers produced enough grain, cotton, beef, pork, and wool to supply the growing domestic market and still have large surpluses to export. Mù nông dân s£n xu¥t lúa g¡o ç, bông, thËt bò, thËt heo, và len à cung c¥p cho thË tr°Ýng trong n°Ûc và ang phát triÃn v«n có th·ng d° lÛn à xu¥t kh©u.

The western region of the United States continued to attract settlers. Các khu vñc phía tây cça Hoa Kó v«n ti¿p tåc thu hút ng°Ýi Ënh c°. Miners staked claims in the ore-rich mountains, cattle ranchers on the vast grasslands, sheep farmers in the river valleys, and farmers on the great plains. Thã mÏ staked tuyên bÑ trong các qu·ng giàu núi, chç trang tr¡i gia súc trên Óng cÏ rÙng lÛn, cëu nông dân ß các thung ling sông, và ng°Ýi nông dân ß vùng Óng b±ng lÛn. Cowboys on horses took care of the animals and guided them to distant railroads for shipment east. Cowboys trên con ngña ã chm sóc cça các loài Ùng v­t và h°Ûng d«n hÍ ¿n °Ýng s¯t xa cho lô hàng phía ông. This is the image of America that many people still have, even though the era of the "Wild West" cowboy lasted only about 30 years. ây là hình £nh cça Mù là r¥t nhiÁu ng°Ýi v«n có, m·c dù thÝi ¡i cça nhïng chàng cao bÓi "" Wild West chÉ kéo dài kho£ng 30 nm.

From the time that Europeans landed on the east coast of America, their migration westward meant confrontation with native peoples. Të thÝi iÃm ó ng°Ýi châu Âu ã Õ bÙ lên bÝ biÃn phía ông cça Mù, di chuyÃn vÁ phía tây cça hÍ có ngh)a là cuÙc Ñi §u vÛi các dân tÙc b£n Ëa. For many years, government policy had been to move Native Americans beyond the reach of the white frontier to lands reserved for their use. Trong nhiÁu nm, chính sách cça chính phç ã °ãc di chuyÃn ng°Ýi Mù gÑc thÕ dân v°ãt khÏi biên giÛi tr¯ng tÛi vùng ¥t dành riêng cho hÍ sí dång. Time and again, however, the government ignored its agreements and opened these areas to white settlement. ThÝi gian và mÙt l§n nïa, tuy nhiên, chính phç bÏ qua thÏa thu­n cça mình và mß ra các khu vñc này à gi£i quy¿t tr¯ng. In the late 1800s, Sioux tribes in the northern plains and Apaches in the southwest fought back hard to preserve their way of life. Vào cuÑi nhïng nm 1800, Sioux bÙ l¡c trong vùng Óng b±ng B¯c và Apaches ß phía tây nam ã chi¿n ¥u trß l¡i khó b£o qu£n theo cách cça hÍ trong cuÙc sÑng. They were skilled fighters but were eventually overwhelmed by government forces. HÍ °ãc máy bay chi¿n ¥u có tay nghÁ nh°ng cuÑi cùng ã bË choáng ngãp bßi lñc l°ãng chính phç. Official policy after these conflicts was well-intentioned but sometimes proved disastrous. Chính théc cça chính sách sau khi các cuÙc xung Ùt ã °ãc well-intentioned nh°ng ôi khi tÏ ra th£m hÍa. In 1934, Congress passed a measure that attempted to protect tribal customs and communal life on the reservations. Nm 1934, QuÑc hÙi ã thông qua mÙt biÇn pháp mà h£i quan ã cÑ g¯ng à b£o vÇ bÙ tÙc và Ýi sÑng xã trên ·t.

The last decades of the 19th century saw a race by European powers to colonize Africa and compete for trade in Asia. Nhïng th­p k÷ cuÑi th¿ k÷ 19 chéng ki¿n mÙt cuÙc ua cça châu Âu, quyÁn h¡n à xâm chi¿m Châu Phi và c¡nh tranh cho th°¡ng m¡i ß châu Á. Many Americans believed the United States had a right and duty to expand its influence in other parts of the world. NhiÁu ng°Ýi Mù tin r±ng Hoa Kó có quyÁn và ngh)a vå à mß rÙng £nh h°ßng cça nó trong các ph§n khác cça th¿ giÛi. Many others, however, rejected any actions that hinted at imperialism. R¥t nhiÁu ng°Ýi khác, tuy nhiên, të chÑi b¥t cé hành Ùng ó ám chÉ ¿ quÑc.

A brief war with Spain in 1898 left the United States with control over several Spanish overseas possessions: Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. MÙt cuÙc chi¿n ng¯n vÛi Tây Ban Nha nm 1898 rÝi Hoa Kó vÛi kiÃm soát mÙt sÑ tài s£n ß n°Ûc ngoài ti¿ng Tây Ban Nha: Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, và Philippines. Officially, the United States encouraged them to move toward self-government, but, in fact, it maintained administrative control. Chính théc, Hoa Kó khuy¿n khích hÍ Ã di chuyÃn vÁ phía chính quyÁn tñ chç, nh°ng, trên thñc t¿, nó °ãc duy trì kiÃm soát hành chính. Idealism in foreign policy existed alongside the practical desire to protect the economic interests of a once-isolated nation that had become a world power. Chç ngh)a duy tâm trong chính sách Ñi ngo¡i ã tÓn t¡i cùng vÛi nhïng mong muÑn thñc hiÇn à b£o vÇ lãi ích kinh t¿ cça mÙt quÑc gia cô l­p mÙt l§n mà ã trß thành mÙt quyÁn lñc trên th¿ giÛi.

Discontent and Reform

B¥t mãn và c£i cách

By 1900, America's political foundations had endured growing pains, civil war, prosperity, and economic depression. Vào nm 1900, nÁn t£ng chính trË cça Mù ã ph£i chËu ñng au ngày càng tng, dân sñ chi¿n tranh, sñ thËnh v°ãng và khçng ho£ng kinh t¿. The ideal of religious freedom had been sustained. Ý t°ßng cça các tñ do tôn giáo ã °ãc duy trì. Free public education had largely been realized, and a free press had been maintained. MiÅn phí giáo dåc công cÙng ã ph§n lÛn °ãc thñc hiÇn, và báo chí tñ do ã °ãc duy trì. At the same time, however, political power seemed concentrated in the hands of corrupt officials and their friends in business. Óng thÝi, tuy nhiên, quyÁn lñc chính trË d°Ýng nh° t­p trung trong tay cça các quan chéc tham nhing và b¡n bè cça hÍ trong kinh doanh. In response, a reform movement called "Progressivism" arose. áp l¡i, mÙt phong trào c£i cách °ãc gÍi là "Progressivism" n£y sinh. Its goals included greater democracy and social justice, honest government, and more effective regulation of business. Måc tiêu này gÓm có các dân chç h¡n và công b±ng xã hÙi, chính phç trung thñc, và hiÇu qu£ h¡n quy Ënh cça doanh nghiÇp. .

Writers and social critics protested practices that were unfair, unhealthy, and dangerous. Nhà vn và nhà phê bình xã hÙi thñc hành °ãc, kháng nghË không lành m¡nh, không lành m¡nh, và nguy hiÃm. Upton Sinclair, Ida M. Tarbell, Theodore Dreiser, Lincoln Steffens, and others produced a "literature of exposure" that put pressure on lawmakers to correct these abuses through legislation. Upton Sinclair, Ida M. Tarbell, Theodore Dreiser, Lincoln Steffens, và nhïng ng°Ýi khác s£n xu¥t mÙt vn hÍc "cça các ti¿p xúc" mà ·t áp lñc lên các nhà l­p pháp à sía chïa các vi ph¡m pháp lu­t thông qua. The reformers believed that expanding the scope of government would ensure the progress of US society and the welfare of its citizens. Ng°Ýi ta tin r±ng các nhà c£i cách mß rÙng ph¡m vi cça chính phç s½ £m b£o sñ ti¿n bÙ cça xã hÙi Mù và phúc lãi cça các công dân cça mình.

President Theodore Roosevelt embodied the spirit of Progressivism and believed that reforms needed to be addressed nationally. TÕng thÑng Theodore Roosevelt thà hiÇn tinh th§n cça Progressivism và tin r±ng cuÙc c£i cách c§n thi¿t à °ãc gi£i quy¿t trên toàn quÑc. He worked with Congress to regulate monopolies and take legal action against companies that violated the law. Ông làm viÇc vÛi QuÑc hÙi à iÁu chÉnh Ùc quyÁn và có hành Ùng pháp lý chÑng l¡i công ty vi ph¡m pháp lu­t. He also was tireless in his efforts to conserve the United States' natural resources, manage public lands, and protect areas for recreational use. Ông cing ã không mÇt mÏi trong n× lñc cça mình à b£o tÓn nguÓn tài nguyên thiên nhiên cça Hoa Kó, qu£n lý ¥t công cÙng, và b£o vÇ các khu vñc à sí dång gi£i trí.

Reforms continued during the presidencies of William Howard Taft and Woodrow Wilson. Ti¿p tåc c£i cách trong presidencies cça William Howard Taft và Woodrow Wilson. The Federal Reserve banking system was established to set interest rates and control the money supply. Các hÇ thÑng ngân hàng dñ trï liên bang °ãc thành l­p à thi¿t l­p lãi su¥t và kiÃm soát l°ãng cung tiÁn. The Federal Trade Commission was established to deal with unfair methods of competition by businesses. æy ban Th°¡ng m¡i Liên bang °ãc thành l­p à Ñi phó vÛi các ph°¡ng pháp không lành m¡nh cça Ñi thç c¡nh tranh cça doanh nghiÇp. New laws were enacted to help improve working conditions for sailors and railroad laborers. Lu­t mÛi °ãc ban hành à giúp c£i thiÇn iÁu kiÇn làm viÇc cho các thçy thç và ng°Ýi lao Ùng °Ýng s¯t. A "county extension" system was developed to help farmers get information and credit. MÙt "qu­n mß rÙng hÇ thÑng" ã °ãc phát triÃn à giúp nông dân có °ãc thông tin và tín dång. And taxes on imported goods were lowered or eliminated to help reduce the cost of living for all Americans. Và thu¿ hàng nh­p kh©u ã °ãc h¡ xuÑng ho·c bË lo¡i bÏ Ã giúp gi£m chi phí sinh ho¡t cho t¥t c£ ng°Ýi Mù.

The Progressive era was also the era when great numbers of people from all over the world came to the United States. ThÝi ¡i ti¿n bÙ cing là thÝi ¡i khi sÑ l°ãng r¥t lÛn cça ng°Ýi dân të kh¯p n¡i trên th¿ giÛi ã ¿n Hoa Kó. Almost 19 million people arrived between 1890 and 1921. H§u nh° 19.000.000 ng°Ýi ¿n giïa nm 1890 và 1921. Earlier immigrants had been chiefly northern and western Europeans and some Chinese. Tr°Ûc ó ng°Ýi nh­p c° ã °ãc chç y¿u là miÁn B¯c và miÁn tây châu Âu và mÙt sÑ Trung QuÑc. The new arrivals came from Italy, Russia, Poland, Greece, the Balkans, Canada, Mexico, and Japan. Nhïng ng°Ýi mÛi ¿n të Ý, Nga, Ba Lan, Hy L¡p, Balkans, Canada, Mexico, và Nh­t B£n.

The United States has always been a "melting pot" of nationalities, and for 300 years few restrictions were placed on immigration. Hoa Kó luôn luôn là mÙt nÓi n¥u ch£y "" cça dân tÙc, và cho giÛi h¡n 300 vài nm ã °ãc ·t trên di trú. Starting in the 1920s, however, quotas were established in response to Americans' fears that their jobs and culture were being threatened by the newcomers. B¯t §u të nhïng nm 1920, tuy nhiên, h¡n ng¡ch °ãc thành l­p à áp éng vÛi n×i sã ng°Ýi Mù 'có công n viÇc làm và vn hóa cça hÍ ã bË e dÍa bßi nhïng ng°Ýi mÛi. While large surges of immigration have historically created social strains, most Americans whose own ancestors arrived as immigrants believe that the Statue of Liberty in New York harbor represents the spirit of a welcoming land to those "yearning to breathe free." Trong khi dâng lÛn nh­p c° có lËch sí t¡o ra các chçng sinh xã hÙi, h§u h¿t ng°Ýi Mù - mà tÕ tiên cça chính ¿n nh° là di dân - tin r±ng Statue of Liberty t¡i c£ng New York t°ãng tr°ng cho tinh th§n cça mÙt vùng ¥t chào ón nhïng "mong muÑn à thß ViÇt." This belief has preserved the United States as a nation of nations. NiÁm tin này ã °ãc b£o tÓn cça Hoa Kó nh° là mÙt quÑc gia cça các quÑc gia.*

H Word War I, 1920s Prosperity, the Great Depression

Th¿ chi¿n thé nh¥t, nm 1920 thËnh v°ãng, Sñ ình trÇ lÛn

War in Europe in 1914 with Germany and Austria-Hungary fighting Britain, France, Italy, and Russia affected US interests almost from the start. Chi¿n tranh ß châu Âu nm 1914 - vÛi éc và Áo-Hung chÑng Anh, Pháp, Ý, và Nga - Mù bË £nh h°ßng lãi ích g§n nh° të §u. The British and the German navies both interfered with American shipping, but German submarine attacks were deadly. Ng°Ýi Anh và h£i quân éc, c£ hai trß ng¡i cho các v­n cça Mù, nh°ng các cuÙc t¥n công tàu ng§m éc ã ch¿t ng°Ýi. Almost 130 Americans died when a submarine sank the British ocean liner Lusitania in 1915. G§n 130 ng°Ýi Mù thiÇt m¡ng khi mÙt chi¿c tàu ng§m bË chìm trong biÃn liner Lusitania cça Anh nm 1915. President Woodrow Wilson demanded an end to the attacks, and they stopped for a while, but by 1917 they had resumed. TÕng thÑng Woodrow Wilson yêu c§u ch¥m dét các cuÙc t¥n công, và hÍ ngëng l¡i mÙt lúc, mà bßi hÍ ã ti¿p tåc gi£i 1917. The United States declared war. Hoa Kó tuyên bÑ chi¿n tranh.

The efforts of more than 1,750,000 US troops played a decisive role in the defeat of the German and Austro-Hungarian alliance. Nhïng n× lñc cça h¡n 1.750.000 quân Ùi Hoa Kó óng mÙt vai trò quy¿t Ënh trong nhïng th¥t b¡i cça éc và Áo-Hung liên minh. An armistice, technically a truce but actually a surrender, was concluded on November 11, 1918. MÙt hiÇp °Ûc ình chi¿n, kù thu­t mÙt cuÙc ng°ng b¯n, nh°ng thñc sñ §u hàng mÙt, ã °ãc ký k¿t vào ngày 11 Tháng M°Ýi MÙt 1918.

President Wilson negotiated an end to the conflict based on his 14-point plan for achieving lasting peace. TÕng thÑng Wilson th°¡ng l°ãng ch¥m dét cuÙc xung Ùt cça mình dña trên 14 iÃm k¿ ho¡ch à ¡t °ãc hòa bình lâu dài. It included an end to secret international agreements, free trade between nations, a reduction in national armaments, self-rule for subjugated European nationalities, and formation of an association a League of Nations to help guarantee political independence and territorial integrity for large and small countries alike. Nó bao gÓm sñ k¿t thúc thÏa thu­n bí m­t quÑc t¿, th°¡ng m¡i tñ do giïa các quÑc gia, gi£m mÙt trong vi khí quÑc gia, tñ cai trË cho dân tÙc subjugated châu Âu, và hình thành mÙt hiÇp hÙi - mÙt HÙi QuÑc Liên - à £m b£o chính trË Ùc l­p và toàn v¹n lãnh thÕ cho lÛn và n°Ûc nhÏ nh° nhau.

The final peace treaty, however, contained virtually none of these points, as the victors insisted on harsh punishment. Các hiÇp °Ûc hòa bình cuÑi cùng, tuy nhiên, chéa h§u nh° không ai trong sÑ nhïng iÃm này, nh° là chi¿n th¯ng khng khng òi trëng ph¡t kh¯c nghiÇt. Wilson's idea of a League of Nations remained in the Treaty of Versailles, but even he was unable to gain enough support for the concept, and the United States rejected it. Wilson ý t°ßng cça mÙt HÙi QuÑc v«n ß trong HiÇp °Ûc Versailles, nh°ng ngay c£ khi ông không thà ¡t °ãc h× trã ç cho khái niÇm này, và Hoa Kó bác bÏ nó. America reverted to its instinctive isolationism. Mù trß l¡i là biÇt l­p b£n nng cça nó.

The immediate postwar period was one of labor unrest and racial tensions. Các ngay l­p téc sau chi¿n tranh thÝi kó là mÙt trong nhïng tình tr¡ng b¥t Õn lao Ùng và cng th³ng chçng tÙc. Farmers were struggling because of the abrupt end of wartime demand. Nông dân ã ¥u tranh vì nhïng k¿t thúc Ùt ngÙt cça nhu c§u thÝi chi¿n. Bolshevik violence fueled a "Red Scare" that led to decades of militant hostility toward the revolutionary Communist movement. Bolshevik b¡o lñc nhiên liÇu mÙt "Red Scare" ó ã d«n tÛi nhiÁu th­p k÷ cça quân thù nghËch h°Ûng vÁ phong trào cách m¡ng cÙng s£n. Despite these problems, for a few years in the 1920s the United States enjoyed a period of real and broadly distributed prosperity. M·c dù nhïng v¥n Á này, mÙt vài nm trong th­p niên 1920 Hoa Kó ã có °ãc mÙt kho£ng thÝi gian thñc và phân phÑi rÙng rãi thËnh v°ãng. Families purchased their first automobile, radio, and refrigerator, and they began going to the movies regularly. Các gia ình mua ô tô §u tiên cça hÍ, phát thanh, và tç l¡nh, và hÍ b¯t §u i xem phim th°Ýng xuyên. And suffragists, after decades of political activism, succeeded in getting approval of a constitutional amendment in 1920 that gave women the right to vote. Và suffragists, sau nhiÁu th­p k÷ ho¡t Ùng chính trË, ã thành công trong viÇc phê chu©n mÙt sía Õi hi¿n pháp nm 1920 ã cho phå nï có quyÁn bÏ phi¿u.

The good times did not last. Các l§n tÑt không cuÑi. The value of many stocks, which had become artificially inflated, fell dramatically in October 1929. Giá trË cça nhiÁu cÕ phi¿u, mà ã trß thành nhân t¡o tng cao, ã gi£m áng kà trong tháng 10 nm 1929. Over the next three years, the business recession in America became part of a worldwide economic depression. Trong ba nm tÛi, tình tr¡ng suy thoái kinh doanh t¡i Mù ã trß thành mÙt ph§n cça mÙt suy thoái kinh t¿ toàn c§u. Businesses and factories shut down, banks failed, farm income dropped. Doanh nghiÇp và nhà máy t¯t, các ngân hàng không thành công, trang tr¡i có thu nh­p gi£m xuÑng. By November 1932, 20 percent of Americans were unemployed. Bßi Tháng M°Ýi MÙt 1932, 20 ph§n trm ng°Ýi Mù bË th¥t nghiÇp.

The presidential campaign that year was chiefly a debate over the causes of the Great Depression and ways to reverse it. Các chi¿n dËch tÕng thÑng nm ó chç y¿u là mÙt cuÙc tranh lu­n vÁ nhïng nguyên nhân cça cuÙc ¡i khçng ho£ng và cách à £o ng°ãc nó. Incumbent Herbert Hoover had started the process of rebuilding the economy, but his efforts had little impact, and he lost the election to Franklin Roosevelt. °¡ng nhiÇm Herbert Hoover ã b¯t §u quá trình xây dñng l¡i nÁn kinh t¿, nh°ng nhïng n× lñc cça ông ã có tác Ùng ít, và ông ã bË m¥t trong cuÙc b§u cí à Franklin Roosevelt. Roosevelt was infectiously optimistic and was ready to use federal authority to achieve bold remedies. Roosevelt ã infectiously l¡c quan và ã sµn sàng à sí dång quyÁn liên bang à ¡t °ãc ph°¡ng thuÑc ­m. Under his leadership, the United States would enter another era of economic and political change. D°Ûi sñ lãnh ¡o cça mình, Hoa Kó s½ nh­p vào mÙt k÷ nguyên cça sñ thay Õi kinh t¿ và chính trË.

The New Deal and World War II

The New Deal và Th¿ Chi¿n II

In the early 1930s, President Franklin Roosevelt proposed a "New Deal" a plan designed to lift Americans out of the Great Depression as quickly as possible. Trong §u th­p niên 1930, TÕng thÑng Franklin Roosevelt ã Á xu¥t mÙt "New Deal" - mÙt k¿ ho¡ch °ãc thi¿t k¿ Ã nâng ng°Ýi Mù ra khÏi cuÙc ¡i khçng ho£ng càng nhanh càng tÑt. He noted that democracy had disappeared in other countries at that time not because the people opposed democracy but because they had grown tired of unemployment and insecurity. Ông l°u ý r±ng nÁn dân chç ã bi¿n m¥t ß các n°Ûc khác t¡i thÝi iÃm ó - không ph£i vì nhïng ng°Ýi chÑng Ñi dân chç nh°ng vì hÍ ã trÓng mÇt mÏi cça th¥t nghiÇp và m¥t an ninh.

Under his leadership, a federal corporation was established to insure deposits in savings banks. D°Ûi sñ lãnh ¡o cça ông, mÙt công ty liên bang °ãc thành l­p à b£o £m tiÁn gíi ti¿t kiÇm ngân hàng. Regulations were imposed on the sale of stocks. ã áp dång quy Ënh vÁ viÇc bán cÕ phi¿u. Laws were passed to guarantee the right of workers to be represented by unions. Pháp lu­t °ãc thông qua à b£o £m quyÁn cça ng°Ýi lao Ùng °ãc ¡i diÇn bßi công oàn. Farmers received subsidies for certain crops and assistance in preventing soil erosion. Nông dân °ãc nh­n trã c¥p cho mÙt sÑ lo¡i cây trÓng và h× trã trong viÇc ngn ch·n xói mòn ¥t. The Civilian Conservation Corps employed young men to plant trees, clean up waterways, and improve facilities in national parks. B£o tÓn các dân quân låc chi¿n tr», ng°Ýi àn ông làm viÇc à trÓng cây, dÍn s¡ch °Ýng thu÷, và c£i thiÇn c¡ sß trong công viên quÑc gia. The Public Works Administration hired skilled laborers for large-scale projects, such as building dams and bridges. Các công trình hành chính °ãc thuê ng°Ýi lao Ùng có tay nghÁ cao cho các dñ án quy mô lÛn, nh° xây dñng ­p n°Ûc và c§u. The Tennessee Valley Authority provided flood control and electric power for that impoverished area. The Tennessee Valley Authority cung c¥p kiÃm soát li låt và iÇn lñc cho r±ng khu vñc nghèo khó. And the Federal Emergency Relief Administration distributed aid, often in the form of direct payments. Và liên bang céu trã kh©n c¥p hành chính °ãc phân phÑi viÇn trã, th°Ýng xuyên trong các hình théc thanh toán trñc ti¿p.

A second round of programs employed workers to build roads, airports, and schools; hired artists, actors, musicians, and writers; and gave part-time employment to young people. MÙt vòng hai ch°¡ng trình làm viÇc cça công nhân à xây dñng °Ýng giao thông, sân bay, và tr°Ýng hÍc; nghÇ s) thuê, diÅn viên, nghÇ s), và các nhà vn và °a cho viÇc làm bán thÝi gian cho nhïng ng°Ýi tr». It also established the Social Security system to help the poor, disabled, and elderly. Nó cing ã thành l­p hÇ thÑng an sinh xã hÙi à giúp á ng°Ýi nghèo, khuy¿t t­t và ng°Ýi già.

Americans were generally uneasy with the idea of big government, yet they wanted the government to take greater responsibility for the welfare of ordinary people. Ng°Ýi Mù nói chung tho£i mái vÛi ý t°ßng cça chính phç lÛn, nh°ng hÍ muÑn chính phç ph£i chËu trách nhiÇm lÛn h¡n cho các phúc lãi cça ng°Ýi dân bình th°Ýng. And while the New Deal provided tangible help for millions of Americans, it never succeeded in restoring prosperity. Và trong khi New Deal hïu hình cung c¥p trã giúp cho hàng triÇu ng°Ýi Mù, nó không bao giÝ thành công trong viÇc khôi phåc l¡i sñ thËnh v°ãng. Better times would come, but not until after another world war had swept the United States into its path. TÑt h¡n l§n s½ ¿n, nh°ng không ¿n sau khi mÙt cuÙc chi¿n tranh th¿ giÛi ã xuôi Hoa Kó vào con °Ýng cça nó.

A second round of programs employed workers to build roads, airports, and schools; hired artists, actors, musicians, and writers; and gave part-time employment to young people. MÙt vòng hai ch°¡ng trình làm viÇc cça công nhân à xây dñng °Ýng giao thông, sân bay, và tr°Ýng hÍc; nghÇ s) thuê, diÅn viên, nghÇ s), và các nhà vn và °a cho viÇc làm bán thÝi gian cho nhïng ng°Ýi tr». It also established the Social Security system to help the poor, disabled, and elderly. Nó cing ã thành l­p hÇ thÑng an sinh xã hÙi à giúp á ng°Ýi nghèo, khuy¿t t­t và ng°Ýi già.

INCLUDEPICTURE "http://photos.state.gov/libraries/usinfo/4110/week_3/061208_NewDeal-2_200.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET

President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs perhaps the most far-reaching legislation of the New Deal: the Social Security Act of 1935. TÕng thÑng Franklin D. Roosevelt d¥u hiÇu có l½ là xa nh¥t ¡t pháp lu­t cça New Deal: An Sinh Xã HÙi ¡o lu­t 1935.

Americans were generally uneasy with the idea of big government, yet they wanted the government to take greater responsibility for the welfare of ordinary people. Ng°Ýi Mù nói chung tho£i mái vÛi ý t°ßng cça chính phç lÛn, nh°ng hÍ muÑn chính phç ph£i chËu trách nhiÇm lÛn h¡n cho các phúc lãi cça ng°Ýi dân bình th°Ýng. And while the New Deal provided tangible help for millions of Americans, it never succeeded in restoring prosperity. Và trong khi New Deal hïu hình cung c¥p trã giúp cho hàng triÇu ng°Ýi Mù, nó không bao giÝ thành công trong viÇc khôi phåc l¡i sñ thËnh v°ãng. Better times would come, but not until after another world war had swept the United States into its path. TÑt h¡n l§n s½ ¿n, nh°ng không ¿n sau khi mÙt cuÙc chi¿n tranh th¿ giÛi ã xuôi Hoa Kó vào con °Ýng cça nó.

The United States tried to remain neutral while totalitarian regimes in Germany, Italy, and Japan expanded their control over neighboring countries. Hoa Kó ã cÑ g¯ng giï trung l­p trong khi ch¿ Ù Ùc tài t¡i éc, Ý, và Nh­t B£n mß rÙng kiÃm soát cça hÍ qua các n°Ûc láng giÁng. Debate intensified after Germany invaded France and began bombing Britain. ©y m¡nh cuÙc tranh lu­n sau khi éc xâm l°ãc Pháp và b¯t §u ném bom Anh. Despite strong isolationist sentiment, Congress voted to conscript soldiers and strengthen the military. M·c dù tình c£m isolationist m¡nh, QuÑc hÙi ã bÏ phi¿u binh s) conscript và tng c°Ýng quân sñ.

Most people were focused on what was happening in Europe when Japan threatened to seize sources of raw materials used by Western industries. H§u h¿t mÍi ng°Ýi Áu t­p trung vào nhïng gì ã x£y ra t¡i Châu Âu khi Nh­t B£n bË e dÍa à giï nguÓn nguyên liÇu °ãc sí dång bßi các ngành công nghiÇp ph°¡ng Tây. In response, the United States imposed an embargo on the one commodity Japan needed above all others oil and demanded that it withdraw from territories it had conquered. áp l¡i, Hoa Kó áp ·t mÙt lÇnh c¥m v­n trên mÙt hàng hóa Nh­t B£n c§n thi¿t trên t¥t c£ nhïng ng°Ýi khác - d§u - và yêu c§u r±ng nó rút khÏi lãnh thÕ cça nó ã chinh phåc. Japan refused, and on December 7, 1941, it carried out a devastating attack on the US Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Nh­t B£n ã të chÑi, và vào ngày 07 tháng 12 1941, nó thñc hiÇn mÙt vå t¥n công trên Thái Bình D°¡ng H¡m Ùi Hoa Kó t¡i Trân Châu C£ng, Hawaii. The United States declared war on Japan. Hoa Kó tuyên chi¿n vÛi Nh­t B£n. Germany and Italy, by then allies of Japan, declared war on the United States. éc và Ý, do ó Óng minh cça Nh­t B£n, tuyên chi¿n vÛi Hoa Kó.

American industry and agriculture were harnessed for the war effort. Mù ngành công nghiÇp và nông nghiÇp ã °ãc khai thác cho n× lñc chi¿n tranh. Production of military equipment was staggering: 300,000 aircraft, 5,000 cargo ships, 60,000 landing craft, and 86,000 tanks in less than four years. S£n xu¥t thi¿t bË quân sñ ã °ãc kinh ng¡c: 300.000 máy bay, tàu hàng 5.000, 60.000 ích thç công, và 86.000 thùng trong vòng bÑn nm. Much of the work was done by women, who went to work in factories while men went to fight. NhiÁu tác ph©m °ãc thñc hiÇn bßi phå nï, nhïng ng°Ýi ã i làm viÇc t¡i các nhà máy trong khi ng°Ýi àn ông ã i ¿n chi¿n ¥u.

The United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union, allied to counter the Nazi threat, decided that their primary military effort was to be concentrated in Europe. Hoa Kó, Anh, và Liên Xô, liên minh à chÑng l¡i mÑi e dÍa cça éc QuÑc xã, ã quy¿t Ënh r±ng chính nhïng n× lñc quân sñ cça hÍ ã °ãc t­p trung ß châu Âu. They were determined to break the German-Italian grip on the Mediterranean and prevent the fall of Moscow. HÍ °ãc xác Ënh à phá vá grip-éc Ý trên Ëa Trung H£i và ngn ch·n sñ såp Õ cça Moscow. Then they would liberate Rome and Paris, and finally Berlin. Sau ó, hÍ s½ gi£i phóng Rome và Paris, và cuÑi cùng là Berlin.

From Germany's occupation of Poland in 1939 to its surrender in 1945, the war in Europe claimed the lives of millions of people soldiers and civilians alike. Të nghÁ nghiÇp cça n°Ûc éc cça Ba Lan vào nm 1939 Ã §u hàng cça mình trong nm 1945, cuÙc chi¿n ß Châu Âu tuyên bÑ cuÙc sÑng cça hàng triÇu ng°Ýi - chi¿n s) và dân th°Ýng nh° nhau. Millions more were exterminated in the Holocaust, Nazi Germany's systematic policy of genocide against the Jews and other groups. Hàng triÇu ng°Ýi nïa bË exterminated trong Holocaust, chính sách cça éc QuÑc xã diÇt chçng Ñi vÛi ng°Ýi Do Thái và các nhóm khác.

The war in Asia was largely a series of naval battles and amphibious assaults to break the Japanese grip on islands in the Pacific Ocean. CuÙc chi¿n tranh t¡i châu Á là chç y¿u là mÙt lo¡t các tr­n ánh h£i quân và hành hung lÙi à phá vá grip Nh­t B£n trên hòn £o ß Thái Bình D°¡ng. Fighting there continued after the fighting in Europe had stopped. ¥u tranh có ti¿p tåc sau khi chi¿n ¥u t¡i châu Âu ã ngëng. The final battles were among the war's bloodiest. Các tr­n chi¿n cuÑi cùng là trong sÑ các cuÙc chi¿n tranh «m máu nh¥t cça. Most Americans, including President Harry Truman, believed that an invasion of Japan would be even worse. H§u h¿t ng°Ýi Mù, trong ó có TÕng thÑng Harry Truman, tin r±ng mÙt cuÙc xâm l°ãc cça Nh­t B£n s½ th­m chí tÇ h¡n. Truman was willing to use the newly developed atomic bomb to bring the war to an end. Truman ã sµn sàng à sí dång bom nguyên tí vëa °ãc phát triÃn à mang l¡i chi¿n tranh ch¥m dét. When Japan refused to surrender, he ordered bombs dropped on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Khi Nh­t B£n të chÑi không §u hàng, ông ra lÇnh bom th£ xuÑng thành phÑ Hiroshima và Nagasaki.

The plan worked Japan surrendered and World War II was finally over in August 1945. K¿ ho¡ch làm viÇc - Nh­t B£n §u hàng - và Th¿ Chi¿n II cuÑi cùng ã qua trong tháng 8 nm 1945. Only later would people realize the full implications of the awesome, destructive power of nuclear weapons. ChÉ sau này mÍi ng°Ýi s½ nh­n ra nhïng ý ngh)a §y ç cça quyÁn lñc awesome phá ho¡i, các lo¡i vi khí h¡t nhân.

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¤d ¤d[$\$gd7uˆgd7uˆgd7uˆ between British troops and armed colonists on April 19, 1775. Cách m¡ng Mù - cça cuÙc chi¿n tranh giành Ùc l­p të Anh - ã b¯t §u nh° mÙt Skirmish nhÏ giïa quân Ùi Anh và thñc dân vi trang ngày 19 tháng t° nm 1775.

The British had set out from Boston, Massachusetts, to seize weapons and ammunition that revolutionary colonists had collected in nearby villages. Ng°Ýi Anh ã ·t ra të Boston, Massachusetts, à giï vi khí và ¡n d°ãc mà thñc dân cách m¡ng ã thu th­p °ãc ß các làng g§n ó. At Lexington, they met a group of Minutemen, who got that name because they were said to be ready to fight in a minute. T¡i Lexington, hÍ ã g·p mÙt nhóm Minutemen, nhïng ng°Ýi ã nh­n r±ng tên này vì hÍ ã nói vÛi sµn sàng chi¿n ¥u trong mÙt phút. The Minutemen intended only a silent protest, and their leader told them not to shoot unless fired on first. The Minutemen dñ Ënh chÉ có mÙt cuÙc biÃu tình im l·ng, và lãnh ¡o cça hÍ nói vÛi hÍ không b¯n, trë khi b¯n vào §u. The British ordered the Minutemen to disperse, and they complied. Ng°Ýi Anh ã ra lÇnh Minutemen à gi£i tán, và hÍ tuân thç. As they were withdrawing, someone fired a shot. Nh° chúng ã °ãc thu hÓi, mÙt ai ó b¯n mÙt b¯n. The British troops attacked the Minutemen with guns and bayonets. Quân Ùi Anh t¥n công Minutemen vÛi súng và l°ái lê.

Fighting broke out at other places along the road as the British soldiers in their bright red uniforms made their way back to Boston. ¥u tranh nÕ ra t¡i các Ëa iÃm khác dÍc theo con °Ýng nh° các binh s) Anh t¡i Óng phåc cça hÍ màu Ï t°¡i, làm theo cách cça hÍ trß l¡i Boston. More than 250 "redcoats" were killed or wounded. H¡n 250 "redcoats" ã ch¿t ho·c bË th°¡ng. The Americans lost 93 men. Ng°Ýi Mù bË m¥t 93 ng°Ýi àn ông.

Deadly clashes continued around Boston as colonial representatives hurried to Philadelphia to discuss the situation. Deadly ti¿p tåc cuÙc xung Ùt xung quanh Boston là thuÙc Ëa hurried ¡i diÇn ¿n Philadelphia à th£o lu­n vÁ tình hình. A majority voted to go to war against Britain. MÙt ph§n lÛn ã bÏ phi¿u à i ¿n chi¿n tranh chÑng l¡i Anh. They agreed to combine colonial militias into a continental army, and they appointed George Washington of Virginia as commander-in-chief. HÍ ã Óng ý à k¿t hãp các dân quân thuÙc Ëa thành mÙt Ùi quân låc Ëa, và hÍ bÕ nhiÇm George Washington cça Virginia nh° chÉ huy-in-chief. At the same time, however, this Second Continental Congress adopted a peace resolution urging King George III to prevent further hostilities. Óng thÝi, tuy nhiên, iÁu này l§n thé hai QuÑc hÙi Låc Ëa ã thông qua mÙt nghË quy¿t kêu gÍi hòa bình vua George III à ngn ch·n sñ thù Ëch thêm. The king rejected it and on August 23 declared that the American colonies were in rebellion. Vua bác bÏ nó và vào ngày 23 Tháng Tám tuyên bÑ r±ng các thuÙc Ëa Mù trong cuÙc nÕi d­y °ãc.

Calls for independence intensified in the coming months. Các cuÙc gÍi Ùc l­p ©y m¡nh trong nhïng tháng tÛi. Radical political theorist Thomas Paine helped crystallize the argument for separation. Cn nhà lý lu­n chính trË Thomas Paine ã giúp tinh tham sÑ cho chia ly. In a pamphlet called Common Sense , which sold 100,000 copies, he attacked the idea of a hereditary monarchy. Trong mÙt cuÑn sách nhÏ gÍi là Sense th°Ýng, bán °ãc 100.000 b£n, ông ã t¥n công các ý t°ßng cça mÙt ch¿ Ù quân chç cha truyÁn con nÑi. Paine presented two alternatives for America: continued submission under a tyrannical king and outworn system of government, or liberty and happiness as a self-sufficient, independent republic. Paine trình bày hai lña chÍn thay th¿ cho Mù: ti¿p tåc nÙp theo mÙt vË vua tyrannical và hÇ thÑng outworn cça chính phç, ho·c tñ do và h¡nh phúc nh° là tñ túc, Ùc l­p cÙng hòa.

The Second Continental Congress appointed a committee, headed by Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, to prepare a document outlining the colonies' grievances against the king and explaining their decision to break away. Thé hai QuÑc hÙi Låc Ëa chÉ Ënh mÙt çy ban, éng §u là Thomas Jefferson Virginia, à chu©n bË mÙt vn b£n phác th£o than phiÁn cça các thuÙc Ëa chÑng l¡i vua và gi£i thích vÁ quy¿t Ënh cça mình à phá vá i. This Declaration of Independence was adopted on July 4, 1776. Tuyên ngôn Ùc l­p này ã °ãc thông qua ngày 04 tháng 7 nm 1776. The 4th of July has since been celebrated as America's Independence Day. Các ngày 4 tháng 7 ã °ãc tÕ chéc kà të khi Mù's Independence Day.

The Declaration of Independence not only announced the birth of a new nation. Tuyên ngôn Ùc l­p, không chÉ công bÑ sñ ra Ýi cça mÙt quÑc gia mÛi. It also set forth a philosophy of human freedom that would become a dynamic force throughout the world. Nó cing °ãc quy Ënh mÙt tri¿t lý cça sñ tñ do cça con ng°Ýi mà có thà trß thành mÙt lñc l°ãng nng Ùng trên toàn th¿ giÛi. It drew upon French and British political ideas, especially those of John Locke in his Second Treatise on Government , reaffirming the belief that political rights are basic human rights and are thus universal. Nó ã thu hút sau khi Pháp và Anh nhïng ý t°ßng chính trË, ·c biÇt là John Locke trong Treatise thé hai cça mình vÁ Chính phç, tái kh³ng Ënh niÁm tin r±ng các quyÁn chính trË c¡ b£n cça con ng°Ýi là quyÁn và °ãc phÕ quát nh° v­y.

Declaring independence did not make Americans free. Tuyên bÑ Ùc l­p ã không làm cho ng°Ýi Mù gÑc ViÇt. British forces routed continental troops in New York, from Long Island to New York City. Anh ánh tan lñc l°ãng quân Ùi låc Ëa t¡i New York, të Long Island tÛi New York. They defeated the Americans at Brandywine, Pennsylvania, and occupied Philadelphia, forcing the Continental Congress to flee. HÍ ánh b¡i ng°Ýi Mù t¡i Brandywine, Pennsylvania, và chi¿m Philadelphia, buÙc ¡i hÙi Låc Ëa ph£i bÏ ch¡y. American forces were victorious at Saratoga, New York, and at Trenton and Princeton in New Jersey. Lñc l°ãng Mù ã chi¿n th¯ng t¡i Saratoga, New York, và ß Trenton và Princeton ß New Jersey. Yet George Washington continually struggled to get the men and materials he desperately needed. Yet George Washington liên tåc ¥u tranh à có °ãc nhïng ng°Ýi àn ông và v­t liÇu ông tuyÇt vÍng c§n thi¿t.

Decisive help came in 1778 when France recognized the United States and signed a bilateral defense treaty. Quy¿t Ënh giúp á ¿n nm 1778 khi Pháp công nh­n Hoa Kó và ký k¿t mÙt hiÇp °Ûc quÑc phòng song ph°¡ng. Support from the French government, however, was based on geopolitical, not ideological, reasons. H× trã të chính phç Pháp, tuy nhiên, dña trên Ëa chính trË, không ý théc hÇ, lý do. France wanted to weaken the power of Britain, its long-time adversary. Pháp muÑn làm suy y¿u séc m¡nh cça n°Ûc Anh, k» thù thÝi gian dài cça nó.

The fighting that began at Lexington, Massachusetts, continued for eight years across a large portion of the continent. Các chi¿n ¥u mà ã b¯t §u t¡i Lexington, bang Massachusetts, ti¿p tåc cho tám nm qua mÙt ph§n lÛn cça châu låc này. Battles were fought from Montreal, Canada, in the north to Savannah, Georgia, in the south. Tr­n ánh ã chi¿n ¥u të Montreal, Canada, ß phía b¯c tÛi Savannah, Georgia, ß miÁn nam. A huge British army surrendered at Yorktown, Virginia, in 1781, yet the war dragged on with inconclusive results for another two years. MÙt Ùi quân lÛn cça Anh §u hàng t¡i Yorktown, Virginia, nm 1781, nh°ng cuÙc chi¿n tranh kéo dài vÛi k¿t qu£ không quyêAt i#nh cho mÙt hai nm. A peace treaty was finally signed in Paris on April 15, 1783. MÙt hiÇp °Ûc hòa bình cuÑi cùng ã °ãc ký k¿t t¡i Paris ngày 15 tháng 4 nm 1783.

The Revolution had a significance far beyond North America. Cách m¡ng ã có mÙt ý ngh)a v°ãt xa B¯c Mù. It attracted the attention of Europe's political theorists and strengthened the concept of natural rights throughout the Western world. Nó thu hút sñ chú ý cça các nhà lý thuy¿t chính trË cça châu Âu và cçng cÑ các khái niÇm vÁ quyÁn tñ nhiên trên kh¯p th¿ giÛi ph°¡ng Tây. It attracted notables such as Thaddeus Kosciusko, Friedrich von Steuben, and the Marquis de Lafayette, who joined the revolution and hoped to transfer its liberal ideas to their own countries. Nó thu hút danh nhân nh° Thaddeus Kosciusko, Friedrich von Steuben, và Marquis de Lafayette, nhïng ng°Ýi tham gia cuÙc cách m¡ng và hy vÍng s½ chuyÃn giao ý t°ßng tñ do cça mình cho các quÑc gia riêng cça hÍ.

The Treaty of Paris acknowledged the independence, freedom, and sovereignty of the 13 former American colonies, now states. HiÇp °Ûc Paris công nh­n sñ Ùc l­p, tñ do, và chç quyÁn cça 13 thuÙc Ëa ci cça Mù, bây giÝ tiÃu bang. The task of knitting them together into a new nation lay ahead. NhiÇm vå cça hÍ an vào nhau thành mÙt quÑc gia mÛi n±m ß phía tr°Ûc.

Ko Formation of a National Govermant

Trong 13 thuÙc Ëa cça ng°Ýi Mù ã trß thành 13 United States of America nm 1783, sau cuÙc chi¿n tranh giành Ùc l­p të Anh. Before the war ended, they ratified a framework for their common efforts. Tr°Ûc khi k¿t thúc chi¿n tranh, hÍ phê chu©n mÙt khuôn khÕ cho các n× lñc chung cça hÍ. These Articles of Confederation provided for a union, but an extremely loose and fragile one. Nhïng iÁu cça Liên oàn cung c¥p cho mÙt công oàn, nh°ng là mÙt trong r¥t lÏng l»o và dÅ vá. George Washington called it a "rope of sand." George Washington gÍi nó là mÙt dây "cça cát."

There was no common currency; individual states still produced their own. Không có Óng tiÁn chung; tëng tiÃu bang v«n còn s£n xu¥t riêng cça hÍ. There was no national military force; many states still had their own armies and navies. Không có quÑc gia lñc l°ãng quân sñ; nhiÁu tiÃu bang còn có quân Ùi và h£i quân cça chính hÍ. There was little centralized control over foreign policy; states negotiated directly with other countries. Có r¥t ít t­p trung kiÃm soát chính sách Ñi ngo¡i; bang àm phán trñc ti¿p vÛi các n°Ûc khác. And there was no national system for imposing and collecting taxes. Và không có hÇ thÑng quÑc gia à áp ·t và thu thu¿.

Disputes between Maryland and Virginia over navigation rights on the Potomac River, which formed their common border, led to a conference of five states in Annapolis, Maryland, in 1786. Tranh ch¥p giïa Maryland và Virginia các quyÁn chuyÃn h°Ûng trên sông Potomac, mà °ãc hình thành biên giÛi chung cça hÍ, ã d«n ¿n mÙt cuÙc hÍp trong nm tiÃu bang t¡i Annapolis, Maryland, nm 1786. Alexander Hamilton, a delegate from New York, said that such commercial issues were part of larger economic and political questions. Alexander Hamilton, mÙt ¡i biÃu të New York, nói r±ng các v¥n Á th°¡ng m¡i nh° là mÙt ph§n cça câu hÏi lÛn h¡n vÁ kinh t¿ và chính trË. What was needed, he said, was a rethinking of the Confederation. iÁu gì là c§n thi¿t, ông nói, là mÙt xét l¡i cça Liên bang. He and the other delegates proposed holding a convention to do just that. Ông và các ¡i biÃu khác Á nghË giï mÙt quy °Ûc à làm iÁu ó. Support from Washington, unquestionably the most trusted man in America, won over those who thought the idea was too bold. H× trã të Washington, unquestionably ng°Ýi àn ông áng tin c­y nh¥t t¡i Mù, ã giành h¡n nhïng ng°Ýi ngh) r±ng ý t°ßng quá ­m.

The gathering in Philadelphia in May 1787 was remarkable. ViÇc thu th­p t¡i Philadelphia tháng 5 nm 1787 ã v°ãt trÙi. The 55 delegates elected to the convention had experience in colonial and state government. Các 55 ¡i biÃu °ãc b§u vào các công °Ûc ã có kinh nghiÇm trong thñc dân và chính quyÁn nhà n°Ûc. They were knowledgeable in history, law, and political theory. HÍ ã có ki¿n théc trong lËch sí, lu­t pháp, và lý lu­n chính trË. Most were young, but the group included the elderly Benjamin Franklin, who was nearing the end of an extraordinary career of public service and scientific achievement. H§u h¿t Áu tr», nh°ng các nhóm bao gÓm các Benjamin Franklin ng°Ýi cao tuÕi, ng°Ýi ã g§n k¿t thúc mÙt sñ nghiÇp phi th°Ýng cça các dËch vå công và các thành tñu khoa hÍc. Two notable Americans were not there: Thomas Jefferson was in Paris as American ambassador to France, and John Adams was in London as ambassador to Great Britain. Hai ng°Ýi Mù áng chú ý là không có: Thomas Jefferson ã ß Paris nh° là ¡i sé Mù ¿n Pháp, và John Adams ã ß London là ¡i sé ¿n V°¡ng quÑc Anh.

The Continental Congress had authorized the convention to amend the Articles of Confederation. ¡i hÙi låc Ëa ã °ãc çy quyÁn theo quy °Ûc à sía Õi các iÁu cça Liên oàn. Instead, the delegates threw aside the Articles judging them inadequate for the needs of the new nation and devised a new form of government based on the separation of legislative, executive, and judicial powers. Thay vào ó, các ¡i biÃu ã ném sang mÙt bên nhïng iÁu - xét xí hÍ không ç cho nhu c§u cça các quÑc gia mÛi - và ngh) ra mÙt hình théc mÛi cça chính phç trên c¡ sß phân chia quyÁn lñc l­p pháp, hành pháp và t° pháp. The gathering had become a constitutional convention. ViÇc thu th­p ã trß thành mÙt ¡i hÙi hi¿n pháp.

Reaching consensus on some of the details of a new constitution would prove extremely difficult. ¡t sñ Óng thu­n vÁ mÙt sÑ chi ti¿t cça mÙt hi¿n pháp mÛi s½ chéng minh vô cùng khó khn. Many delegates argued for a strong national government that limited states' rights. NhiÁu ¡i biÃu cho r±ng Ñi vÛi mÙt chính phç quÑc gia m¡nh r±ng tiÃu bang giÛi h¡n 'quyÁn. Others argued equally persuasively for a weak national government that preserved state authority. Các bài ã °a l­p lu­n nh° nhau persuasively cho mÙt chính phç quÑc gia y¿u mà c¡ quan nhà n°Ûc °ãc b£o tÓn. Some delegates feared that Americans were not wise enough to govern themselves and so opposed any sort of popular elections. MÙt sÑ ¡i biÃu sã r±ng ng°Ýi Mù ã không ç khôn ngoan à ti¿p qu£n chính mình và à ph£n Ñi b¥t kó lo¡i cça cuÙc b§u cí phÕ bi¿n. Others thought the national government should have as broad a popular base as possible. Nhïng ng°Ýi khác ngh) r±ng chính phç quÑc gia c§n ph£i có làm cn cé rÙng phÕ bi¿n nh¥t có thÃ. Representatives from small states insisted on equal representation in a national legislature. Các ¡i diÇn të các tiÃu bang nhÏ kh³ng Ënh vÁ ¡i diÇn bình ³ng trong mÙt c¡ quan l­p pháp quÑc gia. Those from big states thought they deserved to have more influence. Nhïng ng°Ýi të các tiÃu bang lÛn ngh) r±ng hÍ xéng áng à có £nh h°ßng nhiÁu h¡n nïa. Representatives from states where slavery was illegal hoped to outlaw it. Các ¡i diÇn të các tiÃu bang n¡i ch¿ Ù nô lÇ là b¥t hãp pháp hy vÍng outlaw nó. Those from slave states rejected any attempts to do so. Nhïng ng°Ýi të các tiÃu bang nô lÇ bË të chÑi b¥t kó n× lñc à làm nh° th¿. Some delegates wanted to limit the number of states in the Union. MÙt sÑ ¡i biÃu muÑn giÛi h¡n sÑ l°ãng các quÑc gia trong Liên minh. Others supported statehood for the newly settled lands to the West. H× trã nhïng ng°Ýi khác trß thành tiÃu bang cho các vùng ¥t vëa °ãc gi£i quy¿t vÛi ph°¡ng Tây.

Every question raised new divisions, and each was resolved by compromise. M×i câu hÏi lÛn lên các ¡n vË mÛi, và tëng °ãc gi£i quy¿t b±ng thÏa hiÇp.

The draft Constitution was not a long document. Các dñ th£o Hi¿n pháp không ph£i là mÙt tài liÇu dài. Yet it provided the framework for the most complex government yet devised. Tuy nhiên, nó cung c¥p khuôn khÕ cho chính quyÁn phéc t¡p nh¥t ch°a ngh) ra. The national government would have full power to issue currency, levy taxes, grant patents, conduct foreign policy, maintain an army, establish post offices, and wage war. Chính phç quÑc gia s½ có séc m¡nh §y ç ¿n v¥n Á tiÁn tÇ, tiÁn thu¿, c¥p b±ng sáng ch¿, thñc hiÇn chính sách Ñi ngo¡i, duy trì mÙt Ùi quân, thi¿t l­p các vn phòng ng bài, và chi¿n tranh l°¡ng. And it would have three equal branches a congress, a president, and a court system with balanced powers and checks against each other's actions. Và nó s½ có ba nhánh b±ng nhau - mÙt ¡i hÙi, mÙt tÕng thÑng, và hÇ thÑng tòa án - vÛi quyÁn lñc cân b±ng và kiÃm tra Ñi vÛi các hành Ùng cça nhau.

Economic interests influenced the course of debate on the document, but so did state, sectional, and ideological interests. Lãi ích kinh t¿ chËu £nh h°ßng quá trình tranh lu­n trên tài liÇu này, nh°ng nh° v­y ã làm nhà n°Ûc, c¯t, và lãi ích cça t° t°ßng. Also important was the idealism of the men who wrote it. Cing r¥t quan trÍng là lý t°ßng cça nhïng ng°Ýi àn ông ã vi¿t nó. They believed they had designed a government that would promote individual liberty and public virtue. HÍ tin r±ng hÍ ã thi¿t k¿ mÙt chính phç mà s½ thúc ©y tñ do cá nhân và ¡o éc công cÙng.

On September 17, 1787, after four months of deliberation, a majority of delegates signed the new Constitution. Vào ngày 17 Tháng chín nm 1787, sau bÑn tháng nghË án, a sÑ các ¡i biÃu ã ký Hi¿n pháp mÛi. They agreed it would become the law of the land when nine of the 13 states had ratified it. HÍ ã Óng ý s½ trß thành lu­t pháp cça ¥t khi chín cça 13 tiÃu bang ã phê chu©n nó.

The ratification process lasted about a year. Quá trình phê chu©n kéo dài kho£ng mÙt nm. Opponents voiced fears that a strong central government could become tyrannical and oppressive. Ñi thç lÓng ti¿ng lo ng¡i r±ng mÙt chính phç trung °¡ng có thà trß thành tyrannical và áp béc. Proponents responded that the system of checks and balances would prevent this from happening. Nhïng ng°Ýi çng hÙ tr£ lÝi r±ng hÇ thÑng kiÃm tra và cân b±ng s½ ngn ch·n iÁu này x£y ra. The debate brought into existence two factions: the Federalists, who favored a strong central government and who supported the Constitution, and the Anti-Federalists, who favored a loose association of states and who opposed the Constitution. Các cuÙc tranh lu­n °a vào sñ tÓn t¡i hai phe: các Federalists, nhïng ng°Ýi çng hÙ mÙt chính phç trung °¡ng và nhïng ng°Ýi çng hÙ Hi¿n pháp, và ChÑng Federalists, nhïng ng°Ýi çng hÙ mÙt hiÇp hÙi lÏng l»o cça tiÃu bang và nhïng ng°Ýi ph£n Ñi Hi¿n pháp.

Even after the Constitution was ratified, many Americans felt it lacked an essential element. Ngay c£ sau khi Hi¿n pháp ã °ãc phê duyÇt, nhiÁu ng°Ýi Mù c£m th¥y nó thi¿u mÙt y¿u tÑ thi¿t y¿u. They said it did not enumerate the rights of individuals. HÍ nói r±ng nó ã không kê khai các quyÁn cça cá nhân. When the first Congress met in New York City in September 1789, lawmakers agreed to add these provisions. Khi ¡i hÙi l§n §u tiên g·p t¡i thành phÑ New York trong tháng 9 nm 1789, nhà l­p pháp ã Óng ý bÕ sung thêm các quy Ënh. It took another two years before these 10 amendments collectively known as the Bill of Rights became part of the Constitution. Ph£i m¥t mÙt hai nm tr°Ûc khi nhïng sía Õi 10 - t­p thà °ãc gÍi là Bill of Rights - trß thành mÙt ph§n cça Hi¿n pháp.

The first of the 10 amendments guarantees freedom of speech, press, and religion; the right to protest, assemble peacefully, and demand changes. ViÇc §u tiên cça 10 b£o £m sía Õi, tñ do ngôn lu­n, báo chí, và tôn giáo; quyÁn kháng nghË, l¯p ráp mÙt cách hòa bình, và nhïng thay Õi theo yêu c§u. The fourth protects against unreasonable searches and arrest. Thé t° này b£o vÇ chÑng l¡i các tìm ki¿m b¥t hãp lý và b¯t giï. The fifth provides for due process of law in all criminal cases. Thé nm cung c¥p cho quy trình do lu­t pháp trong t¥t c£ các vå án hình sñ. The sixth guarantees the right to a fair and speedy trial. Các thé sáu £m b£o quyÁn °ãc mÙt phiên xí công b±ng và nhanh chóng. And the eighth protects against cruel and unusual punishment. Và thé tám b£o vÇ chÑng l¡i hình ph¡t tàn ác và b¥t th°Ýng.

Since the Bill of Rights was adopted more than 200 years ago, only 17 more amendments have been added to the Constitution. KÃ të khi Tuyên ngôn nhân quyÁn ã °ãc thông qua h¡n 200 nm tr°Ûc ây, chÉ có 17 ti¿t sía Õi ã °ãc thêm vào Hi¿n pháp.

Ko Early Years, Westward Expansion, and Regional Differences

§u nm, mß rÙng vÁ phía tây, và khu vñc khác nhau

George Washington was sworn in as the first president of the United States on April 30, 1789. George Washington tuyên thÇ nh­m chéc nh° là tÕng thÑng §u tiên cça Hoa Kó ngày 30 Tháng T° nm 1789. He had been in charge of organizing an effective military force during the Revolution. Ông ã phå trách tÕ chéc mÙt lñc l°ãng quân sñ hiÇu qu£ trong cuÙc cách m¡ng này. Now he was in charge of building a functioning government. Bây giÝ anh ã phå trách viÇc xây dñng mÙt chính phç ho¡t Ùng.

He worked with Congress to create departments of State, Treasury, Justice, and War. Ông làm viÇc vÛi QuÑc hÙi à t¡o ra bÙ ph­n cça Nhà n°Ûc, Kho b¡c, T° pháp, và chi¿n tranh. The heads of those departments would serve as presidential advisors, his cabinet. Thç tr°ßng các phòng ban s½ phåc vå nh° là cÑ v¥n cça tÕng thÑng, nÙi các cça ông. A Supreme Court composed of one chief justice and five associate justices was established, together with three circuit courts and 13 district courts. MÙt tòa án tÑi cao gÓm mÙt chánh án và nm phán liên k¿t °ãc thành l­p, cùng vÛi ba tòa án m¡ch và 13 Toà án huyÇn. Policies were developed for administering the western territories and bringing them into the Union as new states. Các chính sách ã °ãc phát triÃn cho qu£n lý vùng lãnh thÕ phía tây và °a chúng vào Liên minh nh° các tiÃu bang mÛi.

INCLUDEPICTURE "http://photos.state.gov/libraries/usinfo/4110/week_3/061208_EarlyYears-2_200.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET

Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury in the administration of President George Washington. Alexander Hamilton, th° ký cça kho b¡c trong chính quyÁn cça TÕng thÑng George Washington.

Washington served two four-year terms and then left office, setting a precedent that eventually became law. Washington phåc vå hai kó bÑn nm và sau ó rÝi vn phòng, thi¿t l­p mÙt tiÁn lÇ mà cuÑi cùng ã trß thành lu­t. The next two presidents, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, represented two schools of thought on the role of government. Hai Chç tËch ti¿p theo, John Adams và Thomas Jefferson, ¡i diÇn cho hai tr°Ýng t° t°ßng vÁ vai trò cça chính phç. This divergence led to the formation of the first political parties in the Western world. Phân kó này ã d«n ¿n sñ hình thành cça các £ng chính trË §u tiên trong th¿ giÛi cça ph°¡ng Tây. The Federalists, led by Adams and Alexander Hamilton, Washington's secretary of the Treasury, generally represented trade and manufacturing interests. Các Federalists, do Adams và Alexander Hamilton, Washington th° ký cça Kho b¡c, th°Ýng ¡i diÇn cho lãi ích th°¡ng m¡i và s£n xu¥t. They feared anarchy and believed in a strong central government that could set national economic policies and maintain order. HÍ sã tình tr¡ng h×n lo¡n và tin r±ng trong mÙt chính phç trung °¡ng m¡nh có thà thi¿t l­p các chính sách quÑc gia vÁ kinh t¿ và duy trì tr­t tñ. They had the most support in the North. HÍ ã có sñ h× trã nhiÁu nh¥t ß miÁn B¯c. Republicans, led by Jefferson, generally represented agricultural interests. £ng CÙng hòa, do Jefferson, th°Ýng ¡i diÇn cho lãi ích cça nông nghiÇp. They opposed a strong central government and believed in states' rights and the self-sufficiency of farmers. HÍ ph£n Ñi mÙt chính phç trung °¡ng và tin vào quyÁn tiÃu bang và tñ túc cça nông dân. They had the most support in the South. HÍ ã có sñ h× trã nhiÁu nh¥t ß miÁn Nam.

For about 20 years, the young nation was able to thrive in relative peace. Ñi vÛi kho£ng 20 nm qua, quÑc gia non tr» ã có thà phát triÃn m¡nh trong hòa bình t°¡ng Ñi. Its policy was to be friendly and impartial to all other nations. Chính sách cça nó ã °ãc thân thiÇn và công b±ng cho t¥t c£ các quÑc gia khác. However, it was not immune from political developments in Europe, particularly in Britain and France, which were at war. Tuy nhiên, nó không °ãc miÅn dËch të sñ phát triÃn chính trË ß Châu Âu, ·c biÇt là ß Anh và Pháp, ó là lúc chi¿n tranh. The British navy seized American ships headed to France, and the French navy seized American ships headed to Britain. H£i quân Anh b¯t giï tàu cça Mù éng §u vÛi Pháp, và h£i quân Pháp b¯t giï tàu cça Mù éng §u ¿n Anh. Various diplomatic negotiations averted hostilities during the 1790s and early 1800s, but it seemed only a matter of time before the United States would have to defend its interests. Khác nhau ngn ch·n các cuÙc àm phán ngo¡i giao thù Ëch trong Th­p niên 1790 và §u nm 1800, nh°ng d°Ýng nh° chÉ là mÙt v¥n Á thÝi gian tr°Ûc khi Hoa Kó ã có thà à b£o vÇ lãi ích cça nó.

War with Britain came in 1812. Chi¿n tranh vÛi Anh ¿n nm 1812. Fighting took place mostly in the Northeastern states and along the east coast. Chi¿n ¥u ã diÅn ra chç y¿u ß các bang ông B¯c và dÍc theo bÝ biÃn phía ông. One British expeditionary force reached the new capital of Washington, in the District of Columbia. MÙt lñc l°ãng viÅn chinh cça Anh ¡t ¿n thç ô mÛi cça Washington, trong khu Columbia. It set fire to the executive mansion causing President James Madison to flee and left the city in flames. Nó Ñt các dinh thñ Ñc iÁu hành - làm TÕng thÑng James Madison bÏ ch¡y - và rÝi thành phÑ trong ngÍn lía. But the US army and navy won enough decisive battles to claim victory. Tuy nhiên, quân Ùi Mù và h£i quân ç th¯ng tr­n ánh quy¿t Ënh tuyên bÑ chi¿n th¯ng. After two and a half years of fighting, and with a treasury depleted by a separate war with France, Britain signed a peace treaty with the United States. Sau hai nm r°ái chi¿n ¥u, và vÛi mÙt ngân quù c¡n kiÇt cça mÙt cuÙc chi¿n tranh riêng vÛi Pháp, Anh ã ký mÙt hiÇp °Ûc hòa bình vÛi Hoa Kó. The US victory ended once and for all any British hopes of reestablishing influence south of the Canadian border. Chi¿n th¯ng Mù ã k¿t thúc mÙt l§n và cho t¥t c£ mÍi hy vÍng cça ng°Ýi Anh reestablishing £nh h°ßng biên giÛi phía nam cça Canada.

By the time the War of 1812 ended, many of the serious difficulties faced by the new American republic had disappeared. Bßi thÝi gian chi¿n tranh nm 1812 ã k¿t thúc, nhiÁu ph£i Ñi m·t vÛi nhïng khó khn nghiêm trÍng cça n°Ûc cÙng hòa ng°Ýi Mù mÛi ã bi¿n m¥t. National union under the Constitution brought a balance between liberty and order. QuÑc gia công oàn theo Hi¿n pháp ã mang l¡i mÙt sñ cân b±ng giïa tñ do và tr­t tñ. A low national debt and a continent awaiting exploration presented the prospect of peace, prosperity, and social progress. MÙt th¥p nã quÑc gia và mÙt låc Ëa ang chÝ thm dò trình bày vÁ triÃn vÍng cça hòa bình, thËnh v°ãng và ti¿n bÙ xã hÙi. The most significant event in foreign policy was a pronouncement by President James Monroe expressing US solidarity with the newly independent nations of Central and South America. Nhïng sñ kiÇn quan trÍng nh¥t trong chính sách Ñi ngo¡i là mÙt tuyên do TÕng thÑng Mù James Monroe thà hiÇn tình oàn k¿t vÛi các quÑc gia vëa °ãc Ùc l­p cça miÁn Trung và Nam Mù. The Monroe Doctrine warned against any further attempts by Europe to colonize Latin America. HÍc thuy¿t Monroe ã c£nh báo chÑng l¡i b¥t kó n× lñc h¡n nïa b±ng cách xâm chi¿m Châu Âu Châu Mù Latinh. Many of the new nations, in turn, expressed their political affinity with the United States by basing their constitutions on the North American model. NhiÁu quÑc gia mÛi, l§n l°ãt, bày tÏ sñ ái lñc chính trË cça hÍ vÛi Hoa Kó theo hi¿n pháp cça hÍ dña trên mô hình B¯c Mù.

The United States doubled in size with the purchase of the Louisiana Territory from France in 1803 and Florida from Spain in 1819. Hoa Kó tng g¥p ôi kích th°Ûc khi mua cça Lãnh thÕ Louisiana të Pháp nm 1803 và Florida të Tây Ban Nha nm 1819. From 1816 to 1821, six new states were created. Të 1816-1821, sáu tiÃu bang mÛi °ãc t¡o ra. Between 1812 and 1852, the population tripled. Giïa 1812 và 1852, dân sÑ tng g¥p ba. The young nation's size and diversity defied easy generalization. Các quÑc gia non tr» cça kích th°Ûc và sñ a d¡ng defied tÕng quát dÅ dàng. It also invited contradiction. Nó cing °ãc mÝi mâu thu«n.

The United States was a country of both civilized cities built on commerce and industry, and primitive frontiers where the rule of law was often ignored. Hoa Kó là mÙt quÑc gia cça c£ hai thành phÑ vn minh °ãc xây dñng trên th°¡ng m¡i và công nghiÇp, và biên giÛi nguyên thçy mà lu­t pháp ã °ãc th°Ýng bË bÏ qua. It was a society that loved freedom but permitted slavery. ó là mÙt xã hÙi mà ng°Ýi thân yêu tñ do nh°ng ch¿ Ù nô lÇ cho phép. The Constitution held all these different parts together. Hi¿n pháp ã tÕ chéc t¥t c£ các ph§n khác nhau l¡i vÛi nhau. The strains, however, were growing. Các chçng, tuy nhiên, ã °ãc phát triÃn.

Ko Sectional Conflict

Sectional Xung Ùt

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Henry Clay of Kentucky was one of the most influential American politicians of the first half of the 19th century. Henry Clay cça bang Kentucky là mÙt trong nhïng £nh h°ßng nh¥t cça các chính trË gia ng°Ýi Mù nía §u th¿ k÷ 19.

The United States in 1850 was a huge nation stretched between two oceans. Hoa Kó nm 1850 là mÙt quÑc gia lÛn kéo dài giïa hai ¡i d°¡ng. Wide differences in geography, natural resources, and development were obvious from region to region. Toàn khác biÇt vÁ Ëa lý, tài nguyên thiên nhiên, và phát triÃn °ãc rõ ràng të khu vñc tÛi khu vñc.

New England and the Middle Atlantic states were the main centers of finance, commerce, and manufacturing. New England và các tiÃu bang Trung ¡i Tây D°¡ng ã °ãc các trung tâm chính cça tài chính, th°¡ng m¡i và s£n xu¥t. Principal products included textiles and clothing, lumber, and machinery. S£n ph©m chính gÓm dÇt may và qu§n áo, g×, và máy móc. Maritime trade flourished. Hàng h£i th°¡ng m¡i phát triÃn. The Southern states were chiefly agricultural, producing tobacco, sugar, and cotton with slave labor. Các tiÃu bang miÁn Nam ã chç y¿u là nông nghiÇp, s£n xu¥t thuÑc lá, °Ýng, và bông vÛi lao Ùng nô lÇ. The Middle Western states were agricultural, too, but their grain and meat products came from the hands of free men and women. Trung Tây cça tiÃu bang ã °ãc nông nghiÇp, quá, nh°ng ngi cÑc và các s£n ph©m thËt cça hÍ ¿n të nhïng bàn tay cça ng°Ýi àn ông ViÇt và phå nï.

In 1819, Missouri had applied for statehood. Nm 1819, Missouri ã °ãc áp dång cho tiÃu bang. Northerners objected because there were 10,000 slaves there. MiÁn B¯c Ñi vì có 10.000 nô lÇ ß ó. Congressman Henry Clay of Kentucky proposed a compromise: Missouri would enter the Union and continue to permit slavery, while Maine would enter as a free state. Congressman Henry Clay cça bang Kentucky Á nghË mÙt thÏa hiÇp: Missouri s½ nh­p Liên minh và ti¿p tåc cho phép ch¿ Ù nô lÇ, trong khi Maine s½ nh­p nh° là mÙt nhà n°Ûc ViÇt.

Regional positions on the issue hardened in the decades following the Missouri Compromise. Khu vñc các vË trí vÁ v¥n Á céng trong nhïng th­p k÷ sau thÏa hiÇp Missouri. In the North, the movement to abolish slavery was vocal and grew increasingly powerful. Þ miÁn B¯c, cuÙc v­n Ùng à bãi bÏ ch¿ Ù nô lÇ ã °ãc giÍng hát và phát triÃn ngày càng m¡nh m½. In the South, the belief in white supremacy and in maintaining the economic status quo was equally vocal and powerful. Þ miÁn Nam, niÁm tin trong tr¯ng và uy quyÁn trong viÇc duy trì nguyên tr¡ng kinh t¿ ã °ãc bình ³ng vÛi giÍng hát và m¡nh m½. Although thousands of slaves escaped north through a network of secret routes known as the Underground Railroad, slaves still comprised a third of the population in the slave states at the time of the 1860 census. M·c dù hàng ngàn nô lÇ thoát phía b¯c thông qua mÙt m¡ng l°Ûi các tuy¿n °Ýng bí m­t °ãc gÍi là °Ýng xe lía ng§m, nô lÇ v«n còn bao gÓm mÙt ph§n ba sÑ dân trong n°Ûc nô lÇ t¡i thÝi iÃm iÁu tra dân sÑ 1860.

Most Northerners were unwilling to challenge the existence of slavery in the South, yet many opposed its expansion into the western territories. Ph§n lÛn miÁn B¯c ã không muÑn thách théc sñ tÓn t¡i cça ch¿ Ù nô lÇ ß miÁn Nam, nh°ng nhiÁu ng°Ýi ph£n Ñi viÇc mß rÙng cça nó vào trong lãnh thÕ phía tây. Southerners felt just as strongly that the territories themselves had the right to decide their status. MiÁn Nam c£m th¥y giÑng nh° các vùng lãnh thÕ m¡nh r±ng mình có quyÁn quy¿t Ënh tình tr¡ng cça hÍ. A young politician from Illinois, Abraham Lincoln, felt that the issue was a national, not a local one. MÙt chính trË gia tr» tuÕi të tiÃu bang Illinois, Abraham Lincoln, c£m th¥y r±ng v¥n Á ã là mÙt quÑc gia, không ph£i là mÙt trong nhïng Ëa ph°¡ng. "A house divided against itself cannot stand," he said. "MÙt nhà phân chia chÑng l¡i chính nó không thà éng," ông nói. "I believe this government cannot endure permanently half-slave and half-free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved ... but I do expect it will cease to be divided." "Tôi tin r±ng chính phç này không thà chËu ñng mãi mãi nía nô lÇ và mÙt nía-ViÇt tôi không mong ãi Liên minh à hòa tan .... Nh°ng tôi hy vÍng nó s½ ch¥m dét à chia."

In 1860, the Republican Party nominated Lincoln as its candidate for president on an anti-slavery platform. Nm 1860, £ng CÙng hòa Á cí Lincoln nh° là éng cí viên cho chéc tÕng thÑng cça mình trên mÙt nÁn t£ng chÑng ch¿ Ù nô lÇ. In a four-man race, he won only 39 percent of the popular vote but a clear majority of votes in the Electoral College. Trong bÑn ng°Ýi àn ông chçng tÙc, ông ã giành °ãc chÉ 39 ph§n trm cça phi¿u phÕ bi¿n nh°ng rõ ràng cça mÙt a sÑ phi¿u trong cí tri oàn Tr°Ýng Cao ³ng. The Electoral College is the group of citizens who directly elect the US president and vice president, following the popular vote. Tr°Ýng Cao ³ng cí tri oàn là nhóm các công dân trñc ti¿p b§u tÕng thÑng Mù và phó chç tËch, sau phÕ thông §u phi¿u.

The storm that had been gathering for decades was about to explode with brutal force. C¡n bão này ã °ãc thu th­p trong nhiÁu th­p niên ã vÁ nÕ vÛi lñc l°ãng tàn b¡o. Southern states had threatened to leave the Union if Lincoln were elected; the secessions started even before he was sworn in. It would be up to the new president to try to hold the Union together. TiÃu bang miÁn Nam ã e dÍa s½ rÝi khÏi Liên minh n¿u Lincoln °ãc b§u; các secessions b¯t §u ngay c£ tr°Ûc khi ông tuyên thÇ nh­m in Nó s½ à cho tÕng thÑng mÛi à cÑ g¯ng giï Liên minh vÛi nhau.