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LEXICOLOGY

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Lecture I: INTRODUCTION

I. LEXICOLOGY

+ (Gr. 'lexis' = word +'logos'= learning )

- a science / study which deals with words, morphemes and word groups.

- a science which studies and describes systematically the vocabulary of a given language.

+ consists of 5 essential branches :

1. Word structure and formation

2. Semiology (semantic structure of a word)

3. Phraseology (set expressions, word combinations, idioms, proverbs, etc.).

4. Etymology (history and origin of words)

5. Lexicography (dictionary compiling)

+ Considered from different angles, it falls into:

1. General lexicology

2. Special lexicology

3. Historical lexicology (diachronic aspect)

4. Descriptive lexicology (synchronic aspect)

II. LEXICOLOGY IN RELATION TO

+ phonology (stress and juncture; phoneme and morpheme; homonyms)

+ grammar(gram.meaning+lexical meaning; gram.functions, word structure + formation)

+ stylistics (stylistic aspect, synonyms, antonyms)

III. SOME NOTIONS

+ Paradigm and syntagm

- Paradigm - ordered series of forms / comparable elements at a particular place in the structure. They are formed by means of inflections / endings.

student go

students goes

student's went

students' gone

- Syntagm - word / phrase forming a syntactic unit or elements forming serial structures at a given level in a linear stretch of writing.

SVA Mary is in the garden.

SVC Mary is kind.

SVO Mary has got a new bicycle.

SVOA Mary put the place on the table.

SVOC John thought Mary exceptionally clever.

SVOO Mary gave me expensive presents.

SV(A) Mary laughed (heartily).

Lecture II: WORD STRUCTURE AND FORMATION

I. Word structure

+ Word: an independent language unit which has both sound and spelling forms and is capable to form a sentence by itself.

+ Morphemes:- occur in speech as parts of words, not independently, although a word may consist of a single morpheme.

-are the smallest indivisible meaningful language unit- (cf. phonemes).

Morpheme

Root M Affixal M( bound )

free M bound M gram/functional M derivational M

boy terrible

table terror (inflections) prefix infix suffix

terrorize girl open unkind salesman kindly

include girls opens mislead fisherman leader

exclude sportsman

conclude washerwoman

doomsday

Word

Simple Derived Compound

(R) ( R+A ) ( R+R )

heart hearty sweetheart

II. Word formation

AFFIXATION

Affixation: formation of words by adding affixes to roots

prefixation + suffixation

- productive (help to build new words) affixes.

- non- productive (do not help to build new words) affixes.

1. Prefixation

Classification of prefixes:

Prefixes Meaning Examples

un-, dis- negative unhappy .unlucky, uneven;dishonest, disunion,

non-, il- disaffection; non-stop, non-party, nonsense

im-, in-, illiterate, illegal, illogical; impossible, improper

ir- inactive, inaccurate, incapable; irregular

irrational, irresponsible.

un-, dis-, reversal, unlock,undo,unpack;disagree,disappear,

de-, re- repetition decentralize, demobilize, decontaminate; rewrite

anti-, opposite, review, retell; antiwar, antiaircraft, antithesis

counter- meaning counter-attack,counter-weight,counter-revolution

anti-,ante relationship antechamber, anticipate; ex-president, ex- champion

ex- fore-, in time, ex-manager; foresee, forecast, forefront

pre-, pre-historic,pre-war, precondition; postwar

post- post-graduate, postposition;

up-, sub- place upstairs, upgrade, uplift; subdivision, submarine,

trans- subtitle; transplant, transatlantic, transcontinental

inter-, manner international, interlace, interrelation, extraordinary

extra-, extramural, extranuclear, withstand, withdraw

with-, co- co-exist, cooperate, co-chairman; endanger

en-, em- enable, enclose, embed, empower, emplacement;

super-, degree superman, supernatural, supersonic;

over-, overflow, overcoat, oversleep; outweigh,

out", outcast, out-distance; undergrowth,

under-, underestimate, undersized; ultraviolet,

ultra ultramodern, ultraradical; polysyllabic,

poly-,bi- quantity polysemantic; bicycle, bilateral,

dis-,duo- dissyllable; duodecimal, duologue,

,mono- state monologue, monosyllabic, monolingual.

a-, evaluation awake, afresh, anew, aloud, alike, alone,

mis- afar, misunderstand, mislead, misbehave

+ Productive and non-productive prefixes

Non-productive a- : arise, apathy, anonymous; amphi-( on,both): amphitheatre, amphibious; ab-(from, away): abnormal, abstain; ad-(to, toward): admit, admonish; ante-anti-: antechamber, anticipate; con-, co-(with, together): confrontation, cooperate; de-

( down, away): decrease, depart; dis-, di-: disyllable, diphthong; duo- : duodecimal; en-, em- (in, make) :enact, encircle, embark, embargo; fore-: forearm, foretell; forth-:forthcoming, forthright; in-: inmate, insight; on-, (onset, onslaught), per- (thoroughly): perfect, persuade; poly-: polysyllable, polyglot; re-: retract, return; with- withstand, withdraw

+ Living (still in use) and dead (out of use) prefixes

Dead prefixes : a- :aware, awaken, ashamed; circum-(around): circumstance, circumference; op- (against): opposite, oppress

Exercises on Prefixes

I.Which negative adjective fits each of the following definition ?

1. …………………. not having a husband or wife.

2. …………………. means impossible to eat

3. …………………. means unable to read and write.

4. …………………..means not having a job.

5 …………………...means fair in giving judgement, not favouring one side.

6 …………………...means unable to be replaced.

II. Answer the following questions

1. What kind of oven cooks things particularly fast ?

2. What kind of drug can help somebody with an infection ?

3. What kind of company has branches in many countries ?

4. How does a passenger aeroplane normally fly ?

5. What is a student who is studying for a second degree ?

6. What means "underground railway in the US " and " underground passage in the UK" ?

III.Rewrite the following sentences, using prefixes.

1 He's in favour of the American approach.

2. The BBC tried to avoid pronouncing foreign words incorrectly .

3. Most people say they have to work too hard but are paid too little.

4. He dated his cheque with a date that was late than the real date .

5. She's still on good terms with the man who used to be her husband.

6. He made so many mistakes in the letter that he had to write it again.

IV. Use your knowledge of prefixes to write definitions of the underlined words

Although Jim is an ex-soldier, he's only semi-literate. When he tries to write a letter , he misspells half the words and his wife has to rewrite it for him . His wife used to work in a sub-department of the post office where her main job was redirecting mail . Jim's very pro-army but he over-emphasizes its good points. His wife, on the other hand, is rather anti-army and she undervalues its positive aspects.

V.Which word is the odd one out in each set and why ?

1, legible, loyal, legal, legitimate

2, insert, internal, inedible, income

3, uncomfortable ,unlock ,unfold, unzip

4, extract, ex-wife, ex- communicative, exhale

5, worship, kinship,friendship, partnership

VI arch- (chief, main, highest-ranking) out- (more, better etc. than) mal- (badly, wrongly) pseudo- (false, pretended)

Put each of the above prefixes in its correct space in the sentences below.

(a) In my opinion this book is just …….-intellectual rubbish.

(b) Although he was older than his wife, he ……………..lived her by ten years.

(d) The launch of the space-rocket was delayed by a ………. function in the fuel system.

(e) At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Britain's ……..-enemy was France.

(f) He completely ………. boxed his opponent and knocked him out in the seventh round.

(g) Children who grow up in time of war are more likely to be …….adjusted than other children.

(h) He uses …….....-scientific language to persuade his readers.

(i) These squalid, dark, cramped, ………odorous rooms are homes towhole families of people.

(j) She was the finest dancer in the country. She ……..shone all the others.

VII Explain the meanings of the following words and phrases

(a) a pseudonym (e) malnutrition

(b) arch-rivals (f) pseudo-religious

(d) out-size clothes (h) to outstay your welcome

VIII. a- (not, without) hyper- (extremely, too) fore- (before, in front of) neo- (new, revived)

(a) The British Museum was built in the middle of the last century in the ……………-classical style popular at that time

(b) Who can ………..tell what the future holds for us?

(c) It's no use asking him about the political system or the parties. He didn’t know or care. He's completely ………..political

(d) It's quite normal to complain if you think something is wrong, but I do feel that you are sometimes ……….critical.

(e) The authorities are concerned at the activities of a small ………-Nazi movement.

(f) You must be very careful what you say about her poems. She's a…….sensitive person.

(g) She didn’t know the difference between right and wrong She had no conscience of all. She was simply ……….moral

(h) The police claimed that she had some ……….knowledge of the murder attempt and could have prevented it

(i) He was standing in the middle, in the ……….ground of the picture.

(j) Young children can sometimes be ………..active, which means that they can’t keep still.

IX Explain the meanings of the following words and phrases.

(a) neo-imperiatism (e) hypertension

(b) an atheist (f) a foregone conclusion

(d) a hypermarket (h) a neo-Fascist

X uni-, mono- (one) duo-, bi- (two) tri- (three) quad-, quart- (four) pent-, quin- (five) sex- (six) sept- (seven) oct- (eight) non- (nine) dec- (ten) cent- (hundred)

Complete the words in the passage below

George Willis was born in 1900 and was too young to go into uni……… in the First World War, which took place in the second dec……… of the cent……. . Instead he finished his schooling and went to university. Like most Oxford colleges, his college was built round a quad…….. and a photograph of him there shows him wearing a mono……. in his eye, one of his many eccentricities. He rode a tri…….., declaring it to be safer and more stable than a bi……. . His subject was zoology. Initially he studied bi………, but soon tired of two-legged creatures and took an interest in quad…….., developing a special affection tor elephants. However, all animal life fascinated him and he was often to be seen in the Oxfordshire countryside, observing wildlife through his bi…….. or setting up his tri…….. to record it in photographs. Marine creatures also attracted him, especially, for some reason, the oct…….. . He was also creative in such diverse fields as engineering (he proposed a scheme for mono……….. transport in London) and music (he formed a jazz sex…….., which later became a quin…….. when the drummer joined the navy, a quar…….. when the violinist was run over by a bus and a tri……… when the trombonist was imprisoned for bi…….). He travelled widely and spoke French so well that he was completely bi……… . He was a fine sportsman and won many prizes in the pent……. . In 1972, although by this time a sept………, he wrote his first play, a strange piece which consisted of a due…….. between Shakespeare and Churchill. He is still active and talkative, although conversations with him tend to be mono……. . He talks and others listen. Always optimistic, he looks forward to continuing his busy

lite as a non…….. and to becoming a cent……… . He lives with his wife, a lively oct………, and has two sons and a daughter, whose birth as tri…… in 1927 he describes as the happiest event in his eventful life.

XI Explain the meanings of the following words.

(a) bicentenary (b) pentagon (c) centenary (d) tricolour

(e) monotonous (f) decathlon (g) sexagenarian (h) quintuplets

(i) bisect (j) cent (k) biplane (l) bicameral

(in) unicycle (n) quadruplets (o) unicorn

2. Suffixation

Classification of suffixes :

a. According to the parts of speech

+ Noun-forming suffixes

-age (state,place,progress,collectiveness) :village,blockage;

-al,-ial (act) :refusal,burial;

-ance,-ence (act, state, quality, condition)assistance, appearance, existence, audience;

-an,-ian (agent, follower, resident) :republican, guardian, Cambodian;

-ant,-ent (agent) :assistant, student;

-ancy,-ency (state): vacancy, emergency;

-ard (depreciatory) :drunkard, coward;

-ate (agent, function) :advocate, magistrate;

-asm,-ast (state, condition, agent) :enthusiasm, enthusiast;

-cy (state, condition, office) :bankruptcy, agency;

-dom (state, condition, collectiveness) :freedom, kingdom;

-er,-or(agent, instrument, resident) :teacher, cooker, villager, visitor;

-ee,-ey,-y (receiver/object/result of action) :employee, attomey, inquiry;

-eer (person,profession) :pioneer, engineer;

-ess (feminine) :actress, tigress;

-eur (person) : amateur;

-hood (state, condition) :childhood, neighbourhood;

-ice (act, quality, condition) :service, justice;

-ics (art, study, science) :phonetics, linguistics;

-ie,-y (diminutive) :birdie, granny

-ier (agent) -.cashier,

-ing (art, fact, activity) : learning, feeling;

-ion,-tion (condition, state, result, act) :tension, organization, discussion;

-ism,-ist (doctrine, theory, system, result, follower, specialist) :socialism, scientist;

-ity (state) :clarity, similarity;

-let (small, young) :booklet, piglet;

-ling (diminutive) :seedling, duckling;

-ment (act, state, progress, result, manner) :statement, agreement, improvement;

-mony (state, condition, result) :lestimony, ceremony;

-ness (state, quality, condition, degree) goodness, darkness, seriousness;

-ology (study, system) :biology, psychology;

-or,-our (condition, quality) :error, favour;

-ry (state, condition, collectiveness) :machinery .poetry;

-ship(state, condition, quality, office, profession) :friendship, citizenship;

-ster (agent, depreciatory) :youngster, gangster;

-th (state, quality) strength, length;

-tude (state, quality) :latitude, attitude;

-ty (quality, state, condition) : liberty, poverty;

-ure (act, process, state, result, rank) :pleasure, pressure;

+adjective- forming suffixes

-able, -ible (capable of, characterised by quality) :fashionable, possible;

-al, -ar, -ic, -ile (capable of, of the nature of, belonging to) :global, classical, circular, popular; necessary, secondary; domestic, historic; mobile, infantile;

"an, -ean (originated from, belonging to) :Roman, European;

-ent ,-ant (quality) :independent, different;important,distant;

-ese (resident) :Vietnamese, Chinese;

-fold (having a specified number of): twofold, tenfold;

-ish (having a small degree of like) :reddish, foolish;

-vie (related to, causing) :active, effective;

-less (without, lacking, unable) :useless, harmless;

-ful (full of, characterised by): hopeful, careful;

-like (resembling) :businesslike, comradelike;

-ly (quality, character):friendly, womanly, lovely, lively, silly, sickly, motherly, cowardly, costly;

-ous (causing, characterised by) :glorious, dangerous;

-some (causing, tending to) :troublesome, lonesome;

-ward (in the direction of) :sideward, northward;

-y( characterised by) :mighty, needy, hearty, lofty;

+ Numeral-forming suffixes

-teen (fifteen), -th (fourth), -ty (sixty)

+ Verb -forming suffixes

-ate (facilitate), -fy (horrify), -en (brighten), -ize (specialize),

vaccinate simplify darken legalize

liberate classify shorten fertilize

+ Adverb -forming suffixes

-ly (coldly), -ward (s) (upward (s), -wise (likewise), -long (sidelong), -way(s) (crossways) headlong

b. According to the lexico-grammatical meaning

+ Abstract nouns : -age, - ance, - ence, -ancy, -ency, -ation, -doom, -cy, -hood, -ing,

-ion, -tion, -ism, -ice, -merit, -ness, -ship, -th, -ty

+ Personal nouns: -ant,-an, -ian, -ee, -ent, -er, -ier, -ist, -ey,eer

+ Feminine nouns: actress, heroine, suffragette, testatrix

+ Derogatory suffixes: drunkard, underling, gangster, simpleton

+ Diminutive suffixes: auntie, hanky, chicken, booklet

c. Productive and non-productive suffixes:

Non-productive: -ade, -age, -ance, -ant, -ar, -ard, -ate, -cy, -dom, -en, -eer, -ese, - ence, -ean, -fy, -hood, -ier, -ics, -me, -ic, -ian, -ice, -ive, -long, -ly, -ment, -or, -ster,

-th, -tude, -ward(s), -wise, -y

+ Living and dead suffixes :

Dead suffixes : -t (flight, height), -d (deed), -lock (wedlock)

d. Polysemantic suffixes (a great number)

-er: doer of the action : speaker, player, teacher

person living in a certain place: villager, Londoner

device, tool or instrument: eraser, cooker, boiler, starter, screwdriver

-y : characterized by : windy, rainy

full of, composed of: watery, muddy, sandy, starry

intimate : daddy, mummy, dolly

resembling : bushy, inky, rosy

-ment: state, quality, condition: amazement

action: arrangement

process, manner, government, development

continuance:

Exercises on suffixes

I. Deduce the meaning of the following derivatives from the meanings of their constituents. Explain your deduction. What are the meanings of the affixes in the words under examination?

reddish, a. ………………………………………………………………………..

overwrite, v. ……………………………………………………………………..

irregular, a………………………………………………………………………...

illegal, a…………………………………………………………………………..

retype,v. ………………………………………………………………………….

old-womanish, a. …………………………………………………………………

disrespectable, a. …………………………………………………………………

inexpensive, a. …………………………………………………………………..

unladylike, a. …………………………………………………………………….

disorganise, v…………………………………………………………………….

renew, v. ………………………………………………………………………….

eatable, a. ………………………………………………………………………..

overdress, v. ……………………………………………………………………...

disaffection, n…………………………………………………………………….

snobbish, a……………………………………………………………………….

handful, n. …………………………………………………………… …………

tallish, a…………………………………………………………………………..

sandy, a. …………………………………………………………………………

breakable, a………………………………………………………………………

II. Explain the difference between the meanings of the following words produced from the same root by means of different affixes. Translate the words into Vietnamese.

watery - waterish, ……………………………………………………………

embarrassed - embarrassing. …………………………………………………

manly- mannish, ……………………………………………………………

colorful - colored, ……………………………………………………………

distressed -distressing, ………………………………………………………

respected-respectful-respectable………………………………………………

exhausting- exhausted, ………………………………………………………

bored -boring, ………………………………………………………………..

touchy - touched - touching. …………………………………………………

III -phobia (fear or hatred of) -cide (killer, killing) -gamy (marriage)

Put each of the above suffixes in its correct place in the sentences below.

(a) Those rose-bushes need protection. Spray them with insecti……. .

(b) He gets very tense and nervous in enclosed spaces like lifts and the underground. He suffers from claustro……. .

(d) Some people, and some animals, are terrified of water. This aversion is known as aqua……. .

(e) His problems overwhelmed him and he finally comitted sui…… .

(f) When he was arrested and charged with bi…….., both his wives stood by him.

(g) His Anglo……. comes from some bad experiences he had in England.

(h) Following the man's death, his wife was charged with homi……. .

IV Explain the meanings of the following words and phrases.

(a) germicide (d) a monogamous society

(b) xenophobia (e) tratricide

V -maniac (obsessed person) -phile (lover of) -monger (dealer in)

Instructions as above.

(a) A person who makes and exploits war is called a war…….. .

(b) He has always been a biblio……… and has amassed a vast collection of books over the years.

(d) He's unbelievably self-centred and arrogant. He's a complete ego…….. .

(e) She loved the year she spent in Italy and has been an Italo…….. ever since.

(f) Some journalists are perfectly honest and well-meaning but she just makes a profit from gossip and rumour. She’s just a cheap scandal.…….. .

(g) A klepto……. is a person who has a compulsive desire to steal.

(h) His fondness for drink became an addiction, and his doctor says he's now a dipso……… .

VI Explain the meanings of the following words and phrases

(a) a pyromaniac (d) an Anglophile

(b)Francophilia (e) a mania

(a) a fishmonger (f) a film maniac

VII -worthy (deserving, fit for) -like (similar to) -most (furthest)

(a) To me, at 14, the film-stars I saw at my local cinema were god…….. creatures. (b) John O'Groats in Scotland is the northern…….. town in mainland Britain.

(d) In the old days it was not considered lady……… for a woman to smoke in public, if at all.

(e) Architecture during that period was very boring. Almost every building was a box-___ structure, with no variation or decoration to please the eye.

(f) We're looking for an honest, reliable, trust........ person to handle our legal affairs.

(g) He betrayed the inner……. secrets of his country's government to the enemy.

(h) A small accident like that won't appear in the papers. It isn't news……. enough.

VIII Explain the meanings of the following phrases.

(a) a business-like manner (d) a noteworthy comment

(b) his foremost thought (e) a life-like statue

IX -wards(in the direction of) -esque (like, in the manner of) -some (causing, making)

(a) I have a backache which is a bit trouble………. at times.

(b) He cast his eyes heaven……….. as if imploring God for help or pity.

(d) From Colombia we went south…….. through Equador, Peru and Bolivia to Argentina.

(e) Man's first view of the earth from space was an awe…… sight.

(f) The back garden faces sea……. so you can always be sure of a pleasant view.

(g) I'm afraid I find her constant chatter gets a bit weari.......... after a while.

(h) The architecture here is rather Roman……. . Look at the round arches and thick walls.

X Explain the meanings of the following phrases

(a) quarrelsome boys (d) a downward movement

(b) outwardly confident (e) a tiresome person

XI -scape (scenery) -scope (means of observing) -ette, -let, -ling (small)

(a) Even the most powerful tele…….. does not make the smallest stars visible.

(b) I watched a drop…… of rain move slowly down the window.

(d) A gos…….. is a young goose.

(e) The award takes the form of a silver statu……. of the Greek god, Adonis.

(f) The first television picture of the hitherto mysterious moon……. was the most dramatic sight I have ever seen.

(g) His home is in the country and he's wondering if he can afford to buy a flat…. in London too.

(h) The crew of a submarine just below the surface can see what is happening above by looking through the peri…… .

(i) Travelling by car, you have the chance to stop in the countryside to admire the land……… .

XII Explain the meanings of the following words and phrases.

(a) a microscopic insect (d) a kitchenette

(b) a piglet (e) a marvellous cloudscape

XIII -ist

Make sentences by connecting each person on the left below with the correct phrase on the right.

(a) An ornihologist

(b) A philatelist

(d) A numismatist

(e) A philanthropist

(f) A pathologist

(g) A linguist

(h) A dramatist

(i) A seismologist

(j) A manicurist

(k) A pharmacist

(l) A meteorologist

(m) An arsonist

(n) A taxidermist

(o) A misogynist

(p) A somnambulist

(q) A Sinologist

(r) A chiropodist

(s) A graphologist

…….speaks many languages.

……performs post-mortems on dead bodies.

……is interested in birds.

……writes plays.

……sets fire to property.

……is interested in stamps

……stuffs dead animals.

……is interested in coins,

……believes in equal rights for women,

……hates women.

……is an expert on China.

……gives targe amounts of money to charity.

……is an expert on earthquakes

……makes up medicines.

……looks after people's feet.

……looks after people's hands and fingernails.

……is a handwriting expert.

……studies the weather.

……walks in his or her sleep.

III. WORD COMPOSITION

1. Definition :

A compound word (compound) consists of at least two root morphemes. The components of a compound may be either simple words, derived words or even other compound words, one of which has inflections.

e.g.(n) blackboards, store-keepers, mothers-in-law, passers-by

(v) handwash, handwashes, handwashing, handwashed

(adj) heart-breaking, heart-broken, middle-aged, first-rate

(adv) meantime, midway, wherever

(pr) somebody, anything, whoever

2. Criteria

a. Phonological criterion

+ Most of compounds have a stress on the first component

e.g. 'classroom, 'greenhouse, "boy-friend, to 'whitewash, to'bottlefeed, "snub- nosed, 'forget-me-not, 'mothers-in-law, 'passer-by, 'dancing-girl

cf. free word groups : a green 'house, a dancing 'girl

e.g. A : Look at that beautiful dancing 'girl.

B : She's a well-known 'dancing-girl.

If you don't drive the 'bluebottle away, I will throw the blue 'bottle on your face .

+ Some compounds have double stress (even stress)

eg. 'good'egg, 'bread-and-' butter, 'gray-'green, 'easy'going, 'happy-go-'lucky, 'new-'born, "self-'control, 'All- 'Fools- 'Day, 'passenger 'train, 'merry-go- 'round.

+ Stress helps to differentiate the meaning

e.g. 'over-work (viÖc lµm thªm), 'over-'work (viÖc qu¸ søc)

'bookcase (tñ/gi¸ s¸ch), 'book'case (b×a bäc s¸ch)

,man'kind (loµi ngêi), 'mankind (nam giíi, ®µn «ng)

b. Criterion of the structural integrity

Compounds are indivisible and it is impossible to insert any other words . Endings are added to the whole word.

e.g. black-markets, blackbirds, blackmail, blacklist, blacklegs, red-tape, fair- haired

c. Criterion of semantic integrity

The meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, i.e. the meaning of the whole compound is not a mere sum of the meanings of its components like in a free word group.

e.g. dirty work (dishonorable proceedings)

fuss-pot (person easily excited and nervous about trifles)

slow-coach (person who thinks and acts slowly)

chatterbox (person who talks a great deal without saying anything important)

blue-stocking woman (woman who affects literary tastes and learning)

lip-service (superficial service from the lips only)

lip-reading (interpretation of the motion of the lips)

lipstick (a stick of cosmetics for redding the lips)

d. Graphic (spelling) criterion

A compound can be spelt in three ways : with a hyphen between two components, with break and without break.

e.g. air-line, air line, airline

match-box, match box, matchbox

Few compounds have connective elements (infixes).

e.g. statesman, handicraft, savings-bank, goods-train, Anglo-Saxon

3. Classification

a. Structural classification

+ According to the structure of the immediate components

- simple stems : handbag, film-star

- derived stems : skyscraper, long-legged, ill-mannered, teenager

- abbreviated stems : maths -teacher, H-bomb, X-ray

- at least one compound stem: aircraftcarrier, waste paper basket

- v + adv : break-down, cut-back

+ According to the part of speech

- compound nouns : girlfriend, greengrocer, splashdown

- compound adjectives : red-hot, peace-loving, man-made, middle-aged

- compound verbs : to whitewash, to carpet- bomb, to streamline

- compound adverbs : whole-heartedly, shamefacedly, self-confidently

- compound prepositions : onto, into, hereafter

+ According to the type of composition

- compounds formed by juxtaposition : backache, heart-broken, railroad

- compounds formed by morphological means (with an infix}: spokesman, Affo- Asian, speedometer.

- compounds formed by syntactical means:

(word group —> compound ): up-to-date, forget-me-not, cash-and-carry

- compounds formed by morphological and syntactical means :

kind-hearted : with a kind heart

blue-eyed : with blue eyes

teenager : a person in his teens

+ According to the relation between components

- Coordinative components (both are independent) :socio- economical, brainmaster, mother-earth, parent-teacher

- Subordinative components (one component dominates over the other): wrist-watch, gate-keeper, spaceship.

b. Semantic classification

+ Non-idiomatic (morphologically motivated): The meaning of the whole can deduced from the meanings of the components : door-handle, headache, rose-bush, life-boat, bedroom, sunlight.

+ Idiomatic (non-motivated): no semantic relation between components:

nightmare, lotus-eater, lip-service, eyewash, horse-sense, monkey-business.

c. Phonetic classification:

They are reduplicative compounds which fall into three subgroups :

+ reduplicative compounds proper: hush-hush, pooh-pooh, murmur, quack-quack, puff-puff, fifty-fifty.

+ ablaut combinations: the second basic morpheme is repeated with a different vowel: sing-song, chit-chat, ding-dong, ping-pong, zip-zag, tip-top.

+ rhyme combinations: two pseudo- morphemes is joined to rhyme : walkie-talkie, willy-nilly, hotch-potch, hurry-scurry, lovey-dovey.

How to make Compound words

A compound word is formed by the juxtaposition of two or more words together to make a new one.

1. Compound nouns

a) Noun and noun b) adjective and noun

Horse-race sweetheart

Race-horse gentleman

Football midnight

Moonlight quicksilver

c) Verb and nouns d) Gerund and noun

Tell-tale looking-glass

Pickpocket dotting -paper

Stopcock reading -clamp

Railroad writing- table

e) Participle and noun. f) Verb and adverb.

Singing-bird drawback

Running-hand keepsake

Flying-machine send-off

Moving-pictures go-between

g) Adverb and verb h)preposition(or adverb) and noun

Income afternoon

Outcome forethought

Upstart upland

Offshoot inside

i,Several words together

forget-me-not

note-of-hand

stick-in-the-mud

2. Compound adjectives

a) Noun and adjective b) noun and present participle

Sky- blue money-making

Homesick man-eating

Airtight heart-rending

c) Noun and past participle d)noun and imitation of past participle

Hand-made earth-coloured

Heart-broken lion-hearted

Horse-drawn long-tongued

e) Adjective and adjective f) adjective and present participle

Ready-made ill-smelling

Red-hot sweet-smelling

High-born dull-looking

g) Adjective and past participle h) adjective and imitation of past participle

Ill-bred old-fashioned

Ill-gotten quick-eared

White-washed slow-witted

i) Adverb and present participle j) adverb and past participle

Hard-working out-spoken

Long-suffering well-worn

Ever-lasting well-known

k) Several words together

Up-to-date Up-to-the-minute Well-to-do

Hole-and-glove Hand-to-hand

3. Compound verbs

a) Noun and verb b) adjective and verb

Waylay whitewash

Typewrite safeguard

Henpeck dry-clean

c) Adverb and verb d) verb and adverb

Upset turn over

Backslide put on

Overhear switch off

4. Compound adverbs

a) Adjective and noun b) adverb and position

Midway herein

Otherwise therefore

Meantime hereabout

c) Noun and noun

sidewards Lengthways Clockwise

IV. SHORTENING

A very productive way of word building used in colloquial speech, documents and advertisements.

Types of shortening:

1. Abbreviation

a. Acronyms: words built from the initials of components

+ Monograms:

UK: The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

GB: Great Britain

USA: The United States of America

UNO: United Nations Organization

UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,

UNICEF: United Nations Children's Emergency Fund

UNFPA: United Nations Fund for Population Activities

ESCAP: Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific

WHO/OMS: World Health Organization/ Organization Mondiale de la Sante'

OPEC: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization

TV: television

VIP: very important person

MP: Member of Parliament, Military Police, Mounted Police

GNP: gross national product

GDP: gross domestic product

SOS: Save our souls

POW: prisoner of war

MIA; missing -in-action

GPO: General Post Office

GIs, GI's: government issues, US soldiers

BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation

VOA: Voice of America

RAF: Royal Air Force

USAF; United States Air Force

SALT: Strategic Arms Limitation Talks

F: Fahrenheit

C: Celsius, centigrade

41BC: the year 41 before Christ

AD185: (L. Anno Domini) in the year 185 of the Christian era

H: hydrogen

O: oxygen

Cl: Chlorine

Na: (L. natrium) sodium

etc.: etcetera; and so on

i.e.: (L. id est) that is (to say)

eg. (L. exempli gratia) for example

ibid. ( L. ibidem) in the same book, chapter, page, etc. quoted before

op.cit. (L. opere citato) in the work cited

et al. (L. et alii) and others

viz. (L. videlicet) that is, namely

Nos. : numbers

c/o: care of

v/vs: versus

w/o: without

am: (L. ante meridiem) before noon

pm: (L. post meridiem) after noon

h: hour

min: minute

sec:second

ml: millilitre

kg: kilogramme

cc: cubic centimetre; chapters

pp: pages, past participle

ll: lines

ff: following (pages, lines, etc.)

nn: notes

cf: compare

R.S.V.P./ r.s.v.p.: (Fr. Reppondez s'il vous plait) please reply

COD/c.o.d.: cash on delivery

f.o.b.: free on board

Co.: company

Corp.: corporation

Inc. included, including, incorporated

Ltd.: limited fax (facsimile)

BA: Bachelor of Arts

BSc: Bachelor of Science

MA: Master of Arts

MSc: Master of Science

Litt.B.: Bachelor of Letters, Bachelor of Literature

MBA's: Master of Business Administration

Ph.D.: Doctor of Philosophy

MFA: Master of Fine Arts

FDR: Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882-1945) 32nd US President

JFK: John Fitzgerald Kennedy (1917-1963) 35th US President

I.O.U: I owe you

Jeep: general purpose car

Radar: radio detection and ranging

Laser: light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation

Sonar: sound navigation and ranging

Scuba: self-contained under-water breathing apparatus

+ Homonymy-based acronyms: I.O.U

b. Clipping

+initial: car (motor car), plane (air plane), phone (telephone), bus(omnibus) drome (airdrome).

+ final: exam(examination), lab(laboratory), prof (professor), doc(document), ad (advertisement), ref(reference, referee, refund, reformer),vet (veteran, veterinarian),pop

popular), prefab(prefabricated building materials), fig (figures, figurative), fan(fanatic), veg (vegetarian), gym(gymnastics), bull(bulletin), str(street), sec(second), h(hour), min(minute), Co(Company), Corp(Corporation), Inc.(Incorporated) , incl(included, inclusive), repoff (representative office), Lat(Latin), Gr(Greek), BrE(British English), AmE(American English); Jan(January), Feb(February), Nov (November) ; Hon(Honorable), Rev. (Reverend), rev.(revenue)Sen-(Senator, senior), Jr.(junior), Esq.(Esquire)

+ inito-final: fridge( refrigerator), flu(influenza), tec(detective).

+medial: maths(mathematics), specs(spectacles), V-day(Victory Day), H-bomb(Hydrogen bomb), fancy(fantacy), Mr.(Mister), Mrs., Mmes. Ms.(Messrs, Messieurs), Dr(Doctor), St(Saint), Rd(Road), ma'am(madam), sec'y(secretary), ass'n (association), dep't (department), agcy(agency), ltd.(limited)

+ elliptic-conversational: sit-down(demonstration), pop(popular music), perm(permanent wave, prelim(preliminary examination), coed(coeducational school or college), pram(perambulator), demob(demobilization).

2. Blending: parts of two words merge into a new word: brunch (breakfast + lunch), smog( smoke+fog), telecast(tele-broadcast), medicare ( medical care),telex (telegramme express), motel (motorists' hotel), transreceiver (transmitter-receiver), fruice (fruit juice)

V. CONVERSION

Process of coining a new word in a different part of speech without adding any element (zero derivation). Reason : lack of affixes

Types of conversion :

1. Substantivation of adjectives : (adj n) and verbs ( v n)

- a native , a female, a relative, a daily, elastic, a private, an intellectual, a criminal, a conservative, a radical, a red, a grown-up.

- the blind, the rich, the happy, the good.

- a go, a find, black-out, take-over, a stand, a must, a walk, a move.

2. Adjectivization of nouns (n adj)

a silver cup, a gold ring, an iron knife.

3. Verbalization of nouns or adjectives (n/adj v)

to hand, water, land, pocket, arm, elbow, silence, skin, bottle, railroad, honeymoon, rubber-stamp, machine-gun, head, eye, finger, fish, shoulder, better, black, up, down, lower, narrow, clear, clean, cool, quiet

4. Adverbalization of adjectives (adj adv)

fast ,long, high, pretty, hard, wrong, dead

5. Partial conversion

to have a look/ talk/ smoke/ swim/ wash/ chat/ drink/ sleep/ dance/ rest

to give a ring/kick/ blow/ cry/ laugh/ whistle/jerk/jump/start/ answer

to take a ride / walk/ the lead

to make a move/dive/request/suggestion/ attempt/agreement

6. Individual coinage in conversation

'Hello, dear!' He hello-deared everybody.

I'm tired of his 'hello-dear'.

VI. SOUND AND STRESS INTERCHANGE

1. Sound interchange

food-feed, speak-speech, life-live, advice-advise, bath-bathe, belief-believe, proof-prove, loss-lose; long-length, wide-width, deep-depth, strong-strength, full- fill, sing-song, high-height.

2. Stress interchange

'accent(n) ac'cent(v) 'frequent(adj) fre'quent(v)

'conduct con'duct 'absent ab'sent

'decrease de'crease 'perfect per'fect

'object ob'ject 'concrete con'crete

However, many disyllable verbs and nouns have the same stress :

- on the first syllable : exile, figure, preface, quarrel, focus, process, program, triumph, rivet, etc...

- on the second syllable : accord, account, advance, amount, approach, attack, attempt, concern, defeat, distress, escape, exclaim, research, etc...

VII. SOUND IMITATION (onomatopoeia / echoism)

- Sound and movement of water : babble, blob, bubble, flush, gurgle, gush, splash, etc...

- Sound and movement of things :bang, boom, bump, clash, crash, clink, hum, rattle, rustle, smack, thud, tinkle, whack, whick, whip, etc...

- Sound expressing human feelings : babble, chatter, coe, jabber, giggle, grumble, grunt, hum, murmur, mutter, smack, whine, whisper, titter, etc...

Sound produced by animals, birds, insects:

bee-buzz, hum tiger-roar wild goose-honk

frog - croak dog- bark, woof cock- crow

crow-croak cat-mew, purr hen-cackle

snake-hiss mouse-squeak cow/ox-moo

bird-twitter, chirp pig-squeak, grunt buffalo-snort

wolf- howl duck - quack horse- neigh

lion- roar goose- honk mosquitoes-buzz

monkey-jabber

VIII. BACK FORMATION/ BACK DERIVATION:

Building of a new word by subtracting a real or supposed affix from the existing word:

beggar to beg house-breaking to house-break

baby-sister to baby-sit house-keeping to house-keep

editor to edit tape-recorder to tape-record

escalator to escalate trouble-shooter to trouble-shoot

brainwashing to brainwash window-shopping to window-shop

air-conditioner to air-condition

More exercises on word formation

I. Rewrite the following sentences below forming a compound adjective from the underlined words.

1. Then entered a man with a pale face

2. She has just bought a pair of gloves knitted by hand

3. He went hunting but returned with his hand empty

4. They have just invented a material proof against fire

5. The man was proved to be a murderer thirsty for blood

6. He behaves like a man with a mind of a child

7. The crow was stricken with panic by the storm

8. She felt sick from the sea travel as she was on the voyage for the first time

9. The southern off shore waters were found rich of oil

10. Their teacher was a man with kind heart

11. She was wearing shoes with high heels

12. This coat in expensive because it is proof against bullet

13. He only works part of the time

14. This is a piece of work that consumes a lot of time.

15. Suddenly appeared a beautiful girl with curly hair.

II. Explain the meaning of the underlined words.

1. The clerk was eyeing him expectantly.

2. An aggressive man battled his way to Stout's side

3. How on earth do you remember to milk the cows ?

4. Restaurants in all large cities have their ups and downs.

5. Ten minutes later I was speeding along in the direction of Cape Town

6. "A man could be very happy in a home like this if he didn't have to poison his days with work,"said Jimmy.

7. The desk clerk handed me the key.

8, The upshot seemed to be that I was left to face life with the sum of $ 124

9, My seat was in the middle of the row .I couldn't leave without inconveniencing a great many people , so I remained.

10, Under the cover of that protective din he was able to toy with a steaming dish which his waiter had brought.

III. Replace the underlined words by one word.

1. He was nominated to be at the head of the army.

2. She wanted to be a star in a new film

3. They decided to lay the resolution on the table

4. They put up prices as inflation increased.

5. She turned a cold shoulder on him.

Word Forms

Fill each space in the sentences below with the correct form of the word in bold print above it.

E.g. decide

(a) We must come to a …….. very soon.

(b) We beat them ……….. . We won 7-0.

Answers: (a) decision (b) decisively (c) indecisive

1 beauty

(a) She is very ………….

(b) She's training to be a ………….

2 pay

(a) To buy this car I made a monthly ………….of $280 for two years.

(b) Please make your cheque ………….. to John Watson.

3 receive

(a) She works as a ………… at a hotel in Scotland.

(b)' Ask for a ………………when you buy something, in case you need to return it.

4 hero

(a) He received a medal for his ………………..

(b) They fought …………. in the war.

5 produce

(a) …………… of the new sports car has been halted by a strike.

(b) China is one of the world's leading …………….. of rice.

6 explain

(a) An …………….. leaflet is given to all purchasers of the machine.

(b) His disappearance is very strange, in fact quite …………………. .

7 compare

(a) This is ……………… better than that. In fact, there is really no……………….. .

(b) Scientists have made ………………. tests on the new drugs.

8 advise

(a) Until the situation has settled down, it is ………………… to travel to that country.

(b) The government set up an ……………… body on 'he upc of drugs in sport.

9 admire

a) She was a pleasant, attractive girl, always surrounded by ………………...

(h) I am full of ……………… for what she has achieved.

10 stable

(a) To ……………… the boat in rough sea, we redistributed the weight.

(b) Between 1860 and 1900 the country had a number of revolutions and uprisings. It was a time of great …………………… .

11 economy

(a) We're spending too much. We must …………………...

(b) This car uses a lot of petrol. It's terribly ……………………..

12 reside

(a) Buckingham Palace is the Queen's official ……………………. in London.

(b) There's no industry or entertainment here. It's a …………………….. district.

13 comfort

(a) In that tense situation I found the good news very ………………………

(b) I felt rather ……., so I put a soft cushion behind me.

14 dead

(a) The increasing number of ….. in traffic accidents is alarming.

(b) Be careful! That's a ………….. poison!

15 demonstrate

(a) The ………………… marched through the streets chanting slogans

(b) Grandfather rarely showed the affection he felt for his family. He was a very …………………. person.

16 imitate

(a) The bag is made of …………………. leather.

(b) Small children are very …………… in their behaviour. They just copy what they see.

17 argue

(a) She had an ……………….. with her husband last night.

(b) He's s very bad-tempered, ……………………. chap. He's always quarrelling

18 repeat

(a) He lost his temper and used disgusting, ………………… language.

(b) In this essay you've said the same thing several times. It's very ………………….

19 fall

(a) She is very efficient and ………polite to the customers.

(b) He considered himself a……….. He had succeeded in nothing.

20 courage

(a) His friends tried to ………………… him from attempting the dangerous climb.

(b) She ………………… stood in the way of the escaping robbers.

21 real

(a) I think it's a bit ……………….. to hope that world peace can be gained so easily.

(b) He spends all his time in romantic daydreams. He's lost touch with ……………….

22 false

(a) She was accused of ………………….. the financial accounts.

(b) It is a ………………. to say he did it when you know he didn’t.

23 prophesy

(a) I am not a ___ and I would not like to make a …………. on whether the world can survive this age of nuclear weapons.

(b) What he wrote in 1930 was ………… . Much of what he described has come true.

24 describe

(a) The damage caused by the earthquake cannot be imagined. It was ………………...

(b) The teacher asked them to write a ………… passage about their home towns.

25 friend

(a) The ………………… between the two soon developed into love.

(b) In London she was ……………………by a rich woman who looked after her and helped her.

26 sense

(a) He felt a strange, painful …………………… in his back.

(b) Even the most …………………… person ought to appreciate the beauty of this music.

27 famous

(a) The ………………….. of the Beatles soon spread outside Britain.

(b) The day of the massacre will go down in history as a terrible, ……………. day. It was a day of …………………………….

28 defend

(a) I just want to ask you a few ordinary questions, so why don't you relax? Why are you so ……………………?

(b) The government's policy on arms is shocking. It is quite …………..

29 agree

(a) What an unpleasant, ………… old woman she is!

(b) We finally reached ………………….. on the matter at midnight.

30 possess

(a) In his will he left all his money and ………………….. to his wife.

(b) She was a very ……………… mother. She gave her son very little freedom.

31 different

(a) I'm afraid I have to …………………. . I don't agree with you at all.

(b) Politeness is one thing. Real kindness is another. You must learn to …………. between the two.

32 active

(a) The firm maintained that the strike was organized by a group of political …………...

(b) The fire-prevention system is ……………… by any small increase in temperature.

33 form

(a) It is especially important for children to have love and affection in their ……….. years.

(b) The slight ……….. in his left hand was corrected by surgery.

34 compel

(a) Military service is no longer .............. in Britain

(b) Membership of the Students' Club is entirely voluntary. There is no ………… whatsoever.

35 enthusiasm

(a) They threw themselves ………… into the new project

(b) He's a real golf …………… . He loves the game

(cj They didn't really ………… over my idea. In fact there was some opposition.

36 create

(a) lan Fleming, the ………... of James Bond, died in 1964.

(b) Although she is very able technically, she isn't …… enough forthis kind of work.

37 necessary

(a) We regret that the present economic difficulties will ………….a reduction in our work force.

(b) I sympathize with his point of view, but I don't always…… agree with him,

38 destroy

(a) The control centre is deep underground and completely ……….except by a direct hit from a nuclear missile.

(b) War plans include the immediate ………….... of all enemy military bases.

39 manage

(a) Talks between workers and ……………… have broken down and a strike now seems unavoidable.

(b) The boy was very violent and his parents found him …………………..

40 believe

(a) It was an incredible story, quite …………………...

(b) She is a person of very strong religious ………………………...

CONVERSION

1. Explain the meanings of the underlined nouns

1. He is a liberal. 2. He is such a dear. 3. We are all equals. 4. You needn't go into particulars of the case. 5. There are two large stands for paper in the room . 6. It was always a must with him. 7. The night watch rushed to his help. 8. She couldn't turn the switch. 9. The station is half-an-hour's walk from our house. 10. You are still worrying yourself with stupid ifs and wheres.

2. Express the following in one word :

to become/make quiet to become/ make dull to become pale

to make empty to make tame

3. Explain the meaning of the underlined verbs:

1- He cleaned the suit. 2. The bright light blinded him. 3. The trees began to thin out. 4. Their methods were bettered. 5. She busied herself with papers.

4. Express the following in one word :

1. to strike with a hammer ; 2. to stir with a spoon ; 3. to fasten something with buttons 4. to mark with a brand; 5. to cover something with sand.

5. Explain the meaning of the underlined verbs :

a. to anger one's mother; to chair a meeting; to book a passenger; to elbow one's way; to head a delegation

b. She upped and threw a teapot at him. He upped and awayed to London. 3. He had never outed before. 4. They downed the tools. 5. The boy downed his drink.

6. Form partial conversion with the following verbs, using the verbs 'to have', 'to take', "to give', 'to make'

to smile ........................ to drink ...............................

to kiss............................... to attempt.............................

to breathe ....................... to sleep .…………………..

to advice .......................... to request…………………

to support...................... to suggest…………………

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