International Marketing Environment

Entering global markets.

There are a number of steps that need to be taken before you decide to enter international markets.

Analyze the international marketing environment. A PEST/STEP analysis needs to be conducted on the market you enter, to assess whether it is worthwhile or not. Lets briefly look at some factors that may influence an international decision.

Political factors

Consider:

• The political stability of the nation. Is it a democracy, communist, or dictatorial regime?

• Monetary regulations. Will the seller be paid in a currency that they value or will payments only be accepted in the host nation currency?

Economical Factors

Consider:

• Consumer wealth and expenditure within the country.

• National interests and inflation rate.

• Are quotas imposed on your product.

• Are there import tariffs imposed.

• Does the government offer subsidies to national players that make it difficult for you to compete?

Social Factors

Consider

• Language. Will language be a barrier to communication for you? Does your host nation speak your national language? What is the meaning of your brand name in your host country's language?

• Customs: what customs do you have to be aware of within the country? This is important. You need to make sure you do not offend while communicating your message.

• Social factors: What are the role of women and family within society?

• Religion: How does religion affect behaviour?

• Values: what are the values and attitudes of individuals within the market?

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Technological

Consider:

• The technological infrastructure of the market.

• Do all homes have access to energy (electricity)

• Is there an Internet infrastructure. Does this infrastructure support broadband or dial up?

• Will your systems easily integrate with your host countrys?

• Marketing Environment - PEST Analysis

• View a powerpoint slide PEST Analysis | Take a excercise here

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Introduction

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An organisation's success is influenced by factors operating in it's internal and external environment; an organisation can increase it's success by adopting strategies which manipulate these factors to it's advantage. A successful organisation will not only understand existing factors but also forecast change, so that it can take advantage of change within the environments in which it operates.

• PEST & Micro environmental Factors

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The following type of forces influence an organisation's operating environment:

• • Pest Factors - These are external forces which the organisation does not have direct control over these factors. PEST is an acronym and each letter represents a type of factor (Political, Economical Social and Technological).

• Micro environmental factors - These are internal factors, which the organisation can control.

• PEST & PESTLE analysis

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A PEST analysis is used to identify the external forces affecting an organisation .This is a simple analysis of an organisation's Political, Economical, Social and Technological environment. A PEST analysis incorporating legal and environmental factors is called a PESTLE analysis.

• Political

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The first element of a PEST analysis is a study of political factors. Political factors influence organisations in many ways. Political factors can create advantages and opportunities for organisations. Conversely they can place obligations and duties on organisations. Political factors include the following types of instrument:

• - Legislation such as the minimum wage or anti discrimination laws.

- Voluntary codes and practices

- Market regulations

- Trade agreements, tariffs or restrictions

- Tax levies and tax breaks

- Type of government regime eg communist, democratic, dictatorship

• Non conformance with legislative obligations can lead to sanctions such as fines, adverse publicity and imprisonment. Ineffective voluntary codes and practices will often lead to governments introducing legislation to regulate the activities covered by the codes and practices.

• Economical

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The second element of a PEST analysis involves a study of economic factors.

All businesses are affected by national and global economic factors. National and global interest rate and fiscal policy will be set around economic conditions. The climate of the economy dictates how consumers, suppliers and other organisational stakeholders such as suppliers and creditors behave within society.

• An economy undergoing recession will have high unemployment, low spending power and low stakeholder confidence. Conversely a "booming" or growing economy will have low unemployment, high spending power and high stakeholder confidence.

• A successful organisation will respond to economic conditions and stakeholder behaviour. Furthermore organisations will need to review the impact economic conditions are having on their competitors and respond accordingly.

• In this global business world organisations are affected by economies throughout the world and not just the countries in which they are based or operate from. For example: a global credit crunch originating in the USA contributed towards the credit crunch in the UK in 2007/08.

• Cheaper labour in developing countries affects the competitiveness of products from developed countries. An increase in interest rates in the USA will affect the share price of UK stocks or adverse weather conditions in India may affect the price of tea bought in an English café.

• A truly global player has to be aware of economic conditions across all borders and needs to ensure that it employs strategies that protect and promote its business through economic conditions throughout the world.

• Social

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The third aspect of PEST focuses its attention on forces within society such as family, friends, colleagues, neighbours and the media. Social forces affect our attitudes, interest s and opinions. These forces shape who we are as people, the way we behave and ultimately what we purchase. For example within the UK peoples attitudes are changing towards their diet and health. As a result the UK is seeing an increase in the number of people joining fitness clubs and a massive growth for the demand of organic food. Products such as Wii Fit attempt to deal with society's concern, about children's lack of exercise.

• Population changes also have a direct impact on organisations. Changes in the structure of a population will affect the supply and demand of goods and services within an economy. Falling birth rates will result in decreased demand and greater competition as the number of consumers fall. Conversely an increase in the global population and world food shortage predictions are currently leading to calls for greater investment in food production. Due to food shortages African countries such as Uganda are now reconsidering their rejection of genetically modified foods.

• In summary organisations must be able to offer products and services that aim to complement and benefit people's lifestyle and behaviour. If organisations do not respond to changes in society they will lose market share and demand for their product or service.

• Technological

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Unsurprisingly the fourth element of PEST is technology, as you are probably aware technological advances have greatly changed the manner in which businesses operate.

Organisations use technology in many ways, they have

• 1. Technology infrastructure such as the internet and other information exchange systems including telephone

2. Technology systems incorporating a multitude of software which help them manage their business.

3. Technology hardware such as mobile phones, Blackberrys, laptops, desktops, Bluetooth devices, photocopiers and fax machines which transmit and record information.

• Technology has created a society which expects instant results. This technological revolution has increased the rate at which information is exchanged between stakeholders. A faster exchange of information can benefit businesses as they are able to react quickly to changes within their operating environment.

• However an ability to react quickly also creates extra pressure as businesses are expected to deliver on their promises within ever decreasing timescales..

• For example the Internet is having a profound impact on the marketing mix strategy of organisations. Consumers can now shop 24 hours a day from their homes, work, Internet café's and via 3G phones and 3G cards. Some employees have instant access to e-mails through Blackberrys but this can be a double edged sword, as studies have shown that this access can cause work to encroach on their personal time outside work.

• The pace of technological change is so fast that the average life of a computer chip is approximately 6 months. Technology is utilised by all age groups, children are exposed to technology from birth and a new generation of technology savvy pensioners known as "silver surfers" have emerged. Technology will continue to evolve and impact on consumer habits and expectations, organisations that ignore this fact face extinction.

• PESTLE

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A PEST analysis is sometimes expanded to incorporate legal and environmental factors; this is known as a pestle analysis. There are many statutes books containing company law as almost every aspect of an organisation's operation is controlled through legislation from treatment of employees through to health and safety. Legal factors are important as organisations have to work within legislative frameworks. Legislation can hinder business by placing onerous obligations on organisations. On the other hand legislation can create market conditions that benefit business.

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• Diagram: PEST analysis and the marketing mix.

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Tariffs and Tariff Rate Quotas

Tariffs, which are taxes on imports of commodities into a country or region, are among the oldest forms of government intervention in economic activity. They are implemented for two clear economic purposes. First, they provide revenue for the government. Second, they improve economic returns to firms and suppliers of resources to domestic industry that face competition from foreign imports.

ariffs and non-tariff barriers

(Last updated: 4 Mar 2009)

Since entering the World Trade Organisation (WTO) in December 2001, China has taken measures to comply with its WTO trade commitments. These commitments include lowering tariffs, reducing non-tariff barriers, expanding market access for foreign firms and improving transparency. Although China has implemented progressive reforms in certain areas (most notably import tariff reductions), exporters perceive that a variety of non-tariff trade barriers still remain which impedes access to the China market.

The Australian Federal Government is currently conducting Free Trade Agreement (FTA) negotiations with China to eliminate or reduce tariffs and non-tariff trade barriers for Australian exports. For further information, please refer to the Australia-China Free Trade Agreement Negotiations.

Import tariff

China's import tariff rates are calculated based on the Harmonised System (HS) of Classification Codes. There are two columns of tariffs according to the Most Favoured Nation (MFN) Rates and the General Rates. The MFN Rates apply to those countries that have concluded trade treaties or a reciprocal agreement for preferential treatment with China, or more broadly speaking are member countries of the WTO. (Australia is included in this group). The General Rate is applied to those countries that have not concluded a reciprocal agreement with China.

Import tariff rates also vary according to the type of product, components and the intended use of the products. Most import tariff rates are ad valorem, assessed as a percentage of the CIF value.

Average tariff rates on imports have dropped to 9.8 per cent, with agricultural products at an average of 15.3 per cent and industrial products at an average of 8.95 per cent (at 2007). China has also adopted a policy of tariff exemption on certain imported equipment and machinery that encourages scientific research and technology development, and investment in key hi-tech industries.

Foreign exporters sometimes experience difficulties with inconsistent application of customs classifications, tariff rates and import controls by local customs officials.

Non-tariff barriers

Import restrictions

The Chinese authorities divide imports into three categories:

• Contraband goods, which are prohibited from import. Prohibited imports include weapons, poisons, and toxic chemicals.

• Restricted goods that require an import licence or quota.

• Permitted goods under which most imports are categorised.

The Chinese Government issues 'Public Information Notices' to inform of actual or impending policy changes and categories of goods. Many of these notices are issued in Chinese and are not translated into English. Information on policy releases in English can be found on China's Ministry of Commerce website.

The Chinese Government administers an 'import licence' system on the importation of certain restricted goods, in order to strictly monitor the content or volume. On 1 April 2007, the Chinese Government relaxed the import licensing requirement on 338 categories of products, requiring Chinese importers to apply for an 'automatic import license'.

China's Ministry of Commerce and the General Administration of Customs are responsible for determining the products included in the Merchandise Catalogue of Permitted Automatic Import Goods. Products in this catalogue are free from import restriction, however are still recorded by the Ministry of Commerce.

China has a wide range of tariff rate quotas (TRQs) that are based on a two-tiered tariff system. Global access is granted for a specific import quota at a low rate, and then excess imports are charged at a higher rate. Given that Chinese tariff rate quotas are placed on certain sensitive agricultural products, this creates a non-tariff barrier to trade for many Australian exporters. The following are some of the items that operate under tariff rate quotas:

• Raw wool/wool tops

• Sugar

• Wheat

• Cotton

• Rice

• Diammonium phosphate

• Urea imports

• NPK compound fertilisers

Other non-tariff barriers that may restrict trade are covered under the respective content headings for 'Doing Business' in China.

Non-tariff barriers to trade (NTBs) are trade barriers that restrict imports but are not in the usual form of a tariff. Some common examples of NTB's are anti-dumping measures and countervailing duties, which, although they are called "non-tariff" barriers, have the effect of tariffs once they are enacted.

Their use has risen sharply after the WTO rules led to a very significant reduction in tariff use. Some non-tariff trade barriers are expressly permitted in very limited circumstances, when they are deemed necessary to protect health, safety, or sanitation, or to protect depletable natural resources. In other forms, they are criticized as a means to evade free trade rules such as those of the World Trade Organization (WTO), the European Union (EU), or North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) that restrict the use of tariffs.

Contents

[hide]

• 1 Six Types of Non-Tariff Barriers to Trade

• 2 Examples of Non-Tariff Barriers to Trade

• 3 See also

• 4 References

• 5 External links

[edit] Six Types of Non-Tariff Barriers to Trade

1. Specific Limitations on Trade:

1. Quotas

2. Import Licensing requirements

3. Proportion restrictions of foreign to domestic goods (local content requirements)

4. Minimum import price limits

5. Embargoes

2. Customs and Administrative Entry Procedures:

1. Valuation systems

2. Antidumping practices

3. Tariff classifications

4. Documentation requirements

5. Fees

3. Standards:

1. Standard disparities

2. Intergovernmental acceptances of testing methods and standards

3. Packaging, labeling, and marking

4. Government Participation in Trade:

1. Government procurement policies

2. Export subsidies

3. Countervailing duties

4. Domestic assistance programs

5. Charges on imports:

1. Prior import deposit subsidies

2. Administrative fees

3. Special supplementary duties

4. Import credit discriminations

5. Variable levies

6. Border taxes

6. Others:

1. Voluntary export restraints

2. Orderly marketing agreements

[edit] Examples of Non-Tariff Barriers to Trade

Non-tariff barriers to trade can be:

• Import bans

• General or product-specific quotas

• Rules of Origin

• Quality conditions imposed by the importing country on the exporting countries

• Sanitary and phyto-sanitary conditions

• Packaging conditions

• Labeling conditions

• Product standards

• Complex regulatory environment

• Determination of eligibility of an exporting country by the importing country

• Determination of eligibility of an exporting establishment(firm, company) by the importing country.

• Additional trade documents like Certificate of Origin, Certificate of Authenticity etc.

• Occupational safety and health regulation

• Employment law

• Import licenses

• State subsidies, procurement, trading, state ownership

• Export subsidies

• Fixation of a minimum import price

• Product classification

• Quota shares

• Foreign exchange market controls and multiplicity

• Inadequate infrastructure

• "Buy national" policy

• Over-valued currency

• Intellectual property laws (patents, copyrights)

• Restrictive licenses

• Seasonal import regimes

• Corrupt and/or lengthy customs procedures

• A number of different types of duties can be levied when goods cross international boundaries. With an ad valorem duty, for example, the importer must pay a fee which is calculated as a percentage of the value of the goods being imported. Specific tariffs are set amounts which are levied on products which are imported, regardless of values, while environmental tariffs penalize nations with poor environmental records.

• For importers, tariff barriers can make it difficult to bring goods into a country. The importer may be forced to import less because the tariff barriers cannot be afforded otherwise, and it may need to charge more for the goods to make importing worthwhile. Tariffs are designed to force importers to do this to level the field between domestic producers and importers, allowing costly domestic producers to compete with importers who may be able to bring in goods at lower cost.

• Protectionism, in which nations promote the interests of domestic producers by restricting importers, is common in many nations, but it is also frowned upon, primarily by nations which want to be able to export goods for trade in other countries. Organizations such as the World Trade Organization have promoted the lifting of tariff barriers to reduce the burden on importers. Non-tariff barriers such as import quotas are also targeted for elimination by organizations which promote free trade.

• Related topics

• Protectionism

• World Trade Organization

• Customs Tariff

• Trade Deficit

• Trade Balance

• Tariff Barriers

• World Trade Review

• Some tariff barriers are likely to always remain in place, even in nations which are very open to free trade. Changing the structure of tariffs, taxes, and related expenses is a continual project, and nations occasionally push back or lash out by radically altering their tariffs and other barriers to trade. Nations may also use trade barriers to make political statements which are designed to pressure other countries into modifying their behavior. For example, Country A might refuse to import beef from Country B until Country B can demonstrate that its meat supply is free of bovine spongiform encephalitis (BSE), also known as mad cow disease.

International trade increases the number of goods that domestic consumers can choose from, decreases the cost of those goods through increased competition, and allows domestic industries to ship their products abroad. While all of these seem beneficial, free trade isn't widely accepted as completely beneficial to all parties. This article will examine why this is the case, and how countries react to the variety of factors that attempt to influence trade. (To start with a discussion on trade, see What Is International Trade? and The Globalization Debate.)

What Is a Tariff?

In simplest terms, a tariff is a tax. It adds to the cost of imported goods and is one of several trade policies that a country can enact.

Why Are Tariffs and Trade Barriers Used?

Tariffs are often created to protect infant industries and developing economies, but are also used by more advanced economies with developed industries. Here are five of the top reasons tariffs are used:

1. Protecting Domestic Employment - The levying of tariffs is often highly politicized. The possibility of increased competition from imported goods can threaten domestic industries. These domestic companies may fire workers or shift production abroad to cut costs, which means higher unemployment and a less happy electorate. The unemployment argument often shifts to domestic industries complaining about cheap foreign labor, and how poor working conditions and lack of regulation allow foreign companies to produce goods more cheaply. In economics, however, countries will continue to produce goods until they no longer have a comparative advantage (not to be confused with an absolute advantage).

2. Protecting Consumers - A government may levy a tariff on products that it feels could endanger its population. For example, South Korea may place a tariff on imported beef from the United States if it thinks that the goods could be tainted with disease.

3. Infant Industries - The use of tariffs to protect infant industries can be seen by the Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI) strategy employed by many developing nations. The government of a developing economy will levy tariffs on imported goods in industries in which it wants to foster growth. This increases the prices of imported goods and creates a domestic market for domestically produced goods, while protecting those industries from being forced out by more competitive pricing. It decreases unemployment and allows developing countries to shift from agricultural products to finished goods.

Criticisms of this sort of protectionist strategy revolve around the cost of subsidizing the development of infant industries. If an industry develops without competition, it could wind up producing lower quality goods, and the subsidies required to keep the state-backed industry afloat could sap economic growth.

4. National Security - Barriers are also employed by developed countries to protect certain industries that are deemed strategically important, such as those supporting national security. Defense industries are often viewed as vital to state interests, and often enjoy significant levels of protection. For example, while both Western Europe and the United States are industrialized, both are very protective of defense-oriented companies. This can be seen in the special treatment of Boeing (NYSE:BA) by the United States and Airbus by Europe.

5. Retaliation - Countries may also set tariffs as a retaliation technique if they think that a trading partner has not played by the rules. For example, if France believes that the United States has allowed its wine producers to call its domestically produced sparkling wines "Champagne" (a name specific to the Champagne region of France) for too long, it may levy a tariff on imported meat from the United States. If the U.S. agrees to crack down on the improper labeling, France is likely to stop its retaliation. Retaliation can also be employed if a trading partner goes against the foreign policy objectives of the government.

The next section will cover the various types of trade barriers and tariffs.

Types of Tariffs and Trade Barriers

There are several types of tariffs and barriers that a government can employ:

• Specific tariffs

• Ad valorem tariffs

• Licenses

• Import quotas

• Voluntary export restraints

• Local content requirements

Specific Tariffs - A fixed fee levied on one unit of an imported good is referred to as a specific tariff. This tariff can vary according to the type of good imported. For example, a country could levy a $15 tariff on each pair of shoes imported, but levy a $300 tariff on each computer imported.

Ad Valorem Tariffs - The phrase ad valorem is Latin for "according to value", and this type of tariff is levied on a good based on a percentage of that good's value. An example of an ad valorem tariff would be a 15% tariff levied by Japan on U.S. automobiles. The 15% is a price increase on the value of the automobile, so a $10,000 vehicle now costs $11,500 to Japanese consumers. This price increase protects domestic producers from being undercut, but also keeps prices artificially high for Japanese car shoppers.

Non-tariff barriers to trade include:

Licenses - A license is granted to a business by the government, and allows the business to import a certain type of good into the country. For example, there could be a restriction on imported cheese, and licenses would be granted to certain companies allowing them to act as importers. This creates a restriction on competition, and increases prices faced by consumers.

Import Quotas - An import quota is a restriction placed on the amount of a particular good that can be imported. This sort of barrier is often associated with the issuance of licenses. For example, a country may place a quota on the volume of imported citrus fruit that is allowed.

Voluntary Export Restraints (VER) - This type of trade barrier is "voluntary" in that it is created by the exporting country rather than the importing one. A voluntary export restraint is usually levied at the behest of the importing country, and could be accompanied by a reciprocal VER. For example, Brazil could place a VER on the exportation of sugar to Canada, based on a request by Canada. Canada could then place a VER on the exportation of coal to Brazil. This increases the price of both coal and sugar, but protects the domestic industries.

Local Content Requirement - Instead of placing a quota on the number of goods that can be imported, the government can require that a certain percentage of a good be made domestically. The restriction can be a percentage of the good itself, or a percentage of the value of the good. For example, a restriction on the import of computers might say that 25% of the pieces used to make the computer are made domestically, or can say that 15% of the value of the good must come from domestically produced components.

In the final section we'll examine who benefits from tariffs and how they affect the price of goods.

Who Benefits?

The benefits of tariffs are uneven. Because a tariff is a tax, the government will see increased revenue as imports enter the domestic market. Domestic industries also benefit from a reduction in competition, since import prices are artificially inflated. Unfortunately for consumers - both individual consumers and businesses - higher import prices mean higher prices for goods. If the price of steel is inflated due to tariffs, individual consumers pay more for products using steel, and businesses pay more for steel that they use to make goods. In short, tariffs and trade barriers tend to be pro-producer and anti-consumer.

The effect of tariffs and trade barriers on businesses, consumers and the government shifts over time. In the short run, higher prices for goods can reduce consumption by individual consumers and by businesses. During this time period, businesses will profit and the government will see an increase in revenue from duties. In the long term, businesses may see a decline in efficiency due to a lack of competition, and may also see a reduction in profits due to the emergence of substitutes to their products. For the government, the long-term effect of subsidies is an increase in the demand for public services, since increased prices, especially in foodstuffs, leaves less disposable income. (For related reading, check out In Praise Of Trade Deficits.)

How Do Tariffs Affect Prices?

Tariffs increase the prices of imported goods. Because of this, domestic producers are not forced to reduce their prices from increased competition, and domestic consumers are left paying higher prices as a result. Tariffs also reduce efficiencies by allowing companies that would not exist in a more competitive market to remain open.

Figure 1 illustrates the effects of world trade without the presence of a tariff. In the graph, DS means Domestic Supply and DD means Domestic Demand. The price of goods at home is found at price P, while the world price is found at P*. At a lower price, domestic consumers will consume Qw worth of goods, but because the home country can only produce up to Qd, it must import Qw-Qd worth of goods.

Figure 1. Price without the influence of a tariff

When a tariff or other price-increasing policy is put in place, the effect is to increase prices and limit the volume of imports. In Figure 2, price increases from the non-tariff P* to P'. Because price increases, more domestic companies are willing to produce the good, so Qd moves right. This also shifts Qw left. The overall effect is a reduction in imports, increased domestic production and higher consumer prices. (To learn more about the movement of equilibrium due to changes in supply and demand, read Understanding Supply-Side Economics.)

Figure 2. Price under the effects of a tariff

Tariffs and Modern Trade

The role tariffs play in international trade has declined in modern times. One of the primary reasons for the decline is the introduction of international organizations designed to improve free trade, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO). Such organizations make it more difficult for a country to levy tariffs and taxes on imported goods, and can reduce the likelihood of retaliatory taxes. Because of this, countries have shifted to non-tariff barriers, such as quotas and export restraints. Organizations like the WTO attempt to reduce production and consumption distortions created by tariffs. These distortions are the result of domestic producers making goods due to inflated prices, and consumers purchasing fewer goods because prices have increased. (To learn about the WTO's efforts, read What Is The World Trade Organization?)

Since the 1930s, many developed countries have reduced tariffs and trade barriers, which has improved global integration, as well as brought about globalization. Multilateral agreements between governments increase the likelihood of tariff reduction, and enforcement on binding agreements reduces uncertainty.

Conclusion

Free trade benefits consumers through increased choice and reduced prices, but because the global economy brings with it uncertainty, many governments impose tariffs and other trade barriers to protect industry. There is a delicate balance between the pursuit of efficiencies and the government's need to ensure low unemploymeype of Economic System

Three types of economic systems exist, each with their own drawbacks and benefits; the Market Economy, the Planned Economy and the Mixed Economy.

An economic system is loosely defined as country's plan for its services, goods produced, and the exact way in which its economic plan is carried out. In general, there are three major types of economic systems prevailing around the world.

Market Economy

In a market economy, national and state governments play a minor role. Instead, consumers and their buying decisions drive the economy. In this type of economic system, the assumptions of the market play a major role in deciding the right path for a country's economic development.

Market economies aim to reduce or eliminate entirely subsidies for a particular industry, the pre-determination of prices for different commodities, and the amount of regulation controlling different industrial sectors.

The absence of central planning is one of the major features of this economic system. Market decisions are mainly dominated by supply and demand. The role of the government in a market economy is to simply make sure that the market is stable enough to carry out its economic activities properly.

Planned Economy

A planned economy is also sometimes called a command economy. The most important aspect of this type of economy is that all major decisions related to the production, distribution, commodity and service prices, are all made by the government.

The planned economy is government directed, and market forces have very little say in such an economy. This type of economy lacks the kind of flexibility that is present a market economy, and because of this, the planned economy reacts slower to changes in consumer needs and fluctuating patterns of supply and demand.

On the other hand, a planned economy aims at using all available resources for developing production instead of allotting the resources for advertising or marketing.

Mixed Economy

A mixed economy combines elements of both the planned and the market economies in one cohesive system. This means that certain features from both market and planned economic systems are taken to form this type of economy. This system prevails in many countries where neither the government nor the business entities control the economic activities of that country - both sectors play an important role in the economic decision-making of the country. In a mixed economy there is flexibility in some areas and government control in others. Mixed economies include both capitalist and socialist economic policies and often arise in societies that seek to balance a wide range of political and economic views.

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